diff --git a/app/Config/Events.php b/app/Config/Events.php
index 62a7b86d..946285b8 100644
--- a/app/Config/Events.php
+++ b/app/Config/Events.php
@@ -44,10 +44,10 @@
      */
     if (CI_DEBUG && ! is_cli()) {
         Events::on('DBQuery', 'CodeIgniter\Debug\Toolbar\Collectors\Database::collect');
-        Services::toolbar()->respond();
+        service('toolbar')->respond();
         // Hot Reload route - for framework use on the hot reloader.
         if (ENVIRONMENT === 'development') {
-            Services::routes()->get('__hot-reload', static function (): void {
+            service('routes')->get('__hot-reload', static function (): void {
                 (new HotReloader())->run();
             });
         }
diff --git a/app/Config/Format.php b/app/Config/Format.php
index 3de98d7a..2838f55e 100644
--- a/app/Config/Format.php
+++ b/app/Config/Format.php
@@ -72,6 +72,6 @@ class Format extends BaseConfig
      */
     public function getFormatter(string $mime)
     {
-        return Services::format()->getFormatter($mime);
+        return service('format')->getFormatter($mime);
     }
 }
diff --git a/app/Controllers/BaseController.php b/app/Controllers/BaseController.php
index 8b435dab..689405bd 100644
--- a/app/Controllers/BaseController.php
+++ b/app/Controllers/BaseController.php
@@ -53,6 +53,6 @@ public function initController(RequestInterface $request, ResponseInterface $res
 
         // Preload any models, libraries, etc, here.
 
-        // E.g.: $this->session = \Config\Services::session();
+        // E.g.: $this->session = service('session');
     }
 }
diff --git a/app/Views/errors/cli/error_exception.php b/app/Views/errors/cli/error_exception.php
index 9f47d251..2bf1459d 100644
--- a/app/Views/errors/cli/error_exception.php
+++ b/app/Views/errors/cli/error_exception.php
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@
 
         $args = implode(', ', array_map(static fn ($value) => match (true) {
             is_object($value) => 'Object(' . $value::class . ')',
-            is_array($value)  => count($value) ? '[...]' : '[]',
+            is_array($value)  => $value !== [] ? '[...]' : '[]',
             $value === null   => 'null', // return the lowercased version
             default           => var_export($value, true),
         }, array_values($error['args'] ?? [])));
diff --git a/app/Views/errors/html/error_exception.php b/app/Views/errors/html/error_exception.php
index 44d74989..d5e0c2ec 100644
--- a/app/Views/errors/html/error_exception.php
+++ b/app/Views/errors/html/error_exception.php
@@ -1,6 +1,5 @@
 <?php
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\Header;
-use Config\Services;
 use CodeIgniter\CodeIgniter;
 
 $errorId = uniqid('error', true);
@@ -225,7 +224,7 @@
 
             <!-- Request -->
             <div class="content" id="request">
-                <?php $request = Services::request(); ?>
+                <?php $request = service('request'); ?>
 
                 <table>
                     <tbody>
@@ -343,7 +342,7 @@
 
             <!-- Response -->
             <?php
-                $response = Services::response();
+                $response = service('response');
                 $response->setStatusCode(http_response_code());
             ?>
             <div class="content" id="response">
diff --git a/system/Autoloader/Autoloader.php b/system/Autoloader/Autoloader.php
index 28c183f1..b338027c 100644
--- a/system/Autoloader/Autoloader.php
+++ b/system/Autoloader/Autoloader.php
@@ -19,7 +19,6 @@
 use Config\Autoload;
 use Config\Kint as KintConfig;
 use Config\Modules;
-use Config\Services;
 use InvalidArgumentException;
 use Kint;
 use Kint\Renderer\CliRenderer;
@@ -367,6 +366,9 @@ public function sanitizeFilename(string $filename): string
         return $cleanFilename;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * @param array{only?: list<string>, exclude?: list<string>} $composerPackages
+     */
     private function loadComposerNamespaces(ClassLoader $composer, array $composerPackages): void
     {
         $namespacePaths = $composer->getPrefixesPsr4();
@@ -380,7 +382,7 @@ private function loadComposerNamespaces(ClassLoader $composer, array $composerPa
             }
         }
 
-        if (! method_exists(InstalledVersions::class, 'getAllRawData')) {
+        if (! method_exists(InstalledVersions::class, 'getAllRawData')) { // @phpstan-ignore function.alreadyNarrowedType
             throw new RuntimeException(
                 'Your Composer version is too old.'
                 . ' Please update Composer (run `composer self-update`) to v2.0.14 or later'
@@ -537,7 +539,7 @@ private function configureKint(): void
             Kint::$plugins = $config->plugins;
         }
 
-        $csp = Services::csp();
+        $csp = service('csp');
         if ($csp->enabled()) {
             RichRenderer::$js_nonce  = $csp->getScriptNonce();
             RichRenderer::$css_nonce = $csp->getStyleNonce();
diff --git a/system/Autoloader/FileLocator.php b/system/Autoloader/FileLocator.php
index 14b9a136..8e2564e0 100644
--- a/system/Autoloader/FileLocator.php
+++ b/system/Autoloader/FileLocator.php
@@ -145,10 +145,11 @@ public function getClassname(string $file): string
 
             if ((isset($tokens[$i - 2][1]) && ($tokens[$i - 2][1] === 'phpnamespace' || $tokens[$i - 2][1] === 'namespace')) || ($dlm && $tokens[$i - 1][0] === T_NS_SEPARATOR && $token[0] === T_STRING)) {
                 if (! $dlm) {
-                    $namespace = 0;
+                    $namespace = '';
                 }
+
                 if (isset($token[1])) {
-                    $namespace = $namespace ? $namespace . '\\' . $token[1] : $token[1];
+                    $namespace = $namespace !== '' ? $namespace . '\\' . $token[1] : $token[1];
                     $dlm       = true;
                 }
             } elseif ($dlm && ($token[0] !== T_NS_SEPARATOR) && ($token[0] !== T_STRING)) {
@@ -194,8 +195,9 @@ public function search(string $path, string $ext = 'php', bool $prioritizeApp =
 
         foreach ($this->getNamespaces() as $namespace) {
             if (isset($namespace['path']) && is_file($namespace['path'] . $path)) {
-                $fullPath = $namespace['path'] . $path;
-                $fullPath = realpath($fullPath) ?: $fullPath;
+                $fullPath     = $namespace['path'] . $path;
+                $resolvedPath = realpath($fullPath);
+                $fullPath     = $resolvedPath !== false ? $resolvedPath : $fullPath;
 
                 if ($prioritizeApp) {
                     $foundPaths[] = $fullPath;
@@ -272,14 +274,16 @@ protected function getNamespaces()
      */
     public function findQualifiedNameFromPath(string $path)
     {
-        $path = realpath($path) ?: $path;
+        $resolvedPath = realpath($path);
+        $path         = $resolvedPath !== false ? $resolvedPath : $path;
 
         if (! is_file($path)) {
             return false;
         }
 
         foreach ($this->getNamespaces() as $namespace) {
-            $namespace['path'] = realpath($namespace['path']) ?: $namespace['path'];
+            $resolvedNamespacePath = realpath($namespace['path']);
+            $namespace['path']     = $resolvedNamespacePath !== false ? $resolvedNamespacePath : $namespace['path'];
 
             if ($namespace['path'] === '') {
                 continue;
@@ -331,8 +335,9 @@ public function listFiles(string $path): array
         helper('filesystem');
 
         foreach ($this->getNamespaces() as $namespace) {
-            $fullPath = $namespace['path'] . $path;
-            $fullPath = realpath($fullPath) ?: $fullPath;
+            $fullPath     = $namespace['path'] . $path;
+            $resolvedPath = realpath($fullPath);
+            $fullPath     = $resolvedPath !== false ? $resolvedPath : $fullPath;
 
             if (! is_dir($fullPath)) {
                 continue;
@@ -365,8 +370,9 @@ public function listNamespaceFiles(string $prefix, string $path): array
 
         // autoloader->getNamespace($prefix) returns an array of paths for that namespace
         foreach ($this->autoloader->getNamespace($prefix) as $namespacePath) {
-            $fullPath = rtrim($namespacePath, '/') . '/' . $path;
-            $fullPath = realpath($fullPath) ?: $fullPath;
+            $fullPath     = rtrim($namespacePath, '/') . '/' . $path;
+            $resolvedPath = realpath($fullPath);
+            $fullPath     = $resolvedPath !== false ? $resolvedPath : $fullPath;
 
             if (! is_dir($fullPath)) {
                 continue;
@@ -392,8 +398,9 @@ public function listNamespaceFiles(string $prefix, string $path): array
      */
     protected function legacyLocate(string $file, ?string $folder = null)
     {
-        $path = APPPATH . ($folder === null ? $file : $folder . '/' . $file);
-        $path = realpath($path) ?: $path;
+        $path         = APPPATH . ($folder === null ? $file : $folder . '/' . $file);
+        $resolvedPath = realpath($path);
+        $path         = $resolvedPath !== false ? $resolvedPath : $path;
 
         if (is_file($path)) {
             return $path;
diff --git a/system/Autoloader/FileLocatorCached.php b/system/Autoloader/FileLocatorCached.php
index adf45330..8b173994 100644
--- a/system/Autoloader/FileLocatorCached.php
+++ b/system/Autoloader/FileLocatorCached.php
@@ -36,6 +36,8 @@ final class FileLocatorCached implements FileLocatorInterface
      * [
      *     'search' => [$path => $foundPaths],
      * ]
+     *
+     * @var array<string, array<string, mixed>>
      */
     private array $cache = [];
 
@@ -114,6 +116,9 @@ public function getClassname(string $file): string
         return $classname;
     }
 
+    /**
+     * @return list<string>
+     */
     public function search(string $path, string $ext = 'php', bool $prioritizeApp = true): array
     {
         if (isset($this->cache['search'][$path][$ext][$prioritizeApp])) {
diff --git a/system/Autoloader/FileLocatorInterface.php b/system/Autoloader/FileLocatorInterface.php
index 3f7355a8..3a1112dd 100644
--- a/system/Autoloader/FileLocatorInterface.php
+++ b/system/Autoloader/FileLocatorInterface.php
@@ -53,6 +53,8 @@ public function getClassname(string $file): string;
      *      'app/Modules/foo/Config/Routes.php',
      *      'app/Modules/bar/Config/Routes.php',
      *  ]
+     *
+     * @return list<string>
      */
     public function search(string $path, string $ext = 'php', bool $prioritizeApp = true): array;
 
diff --git a/system/BaseModel.php b/system/BaseModel.php
index 2b364bdc..05c5459d 100644
--- a/system/BaseModel.php
+++ b/system/BaseModel.php
@@ -26,7 +26,6 @@
 use CodeIgniter\Pager\Pager;
 use CodeIgniter\Validation\ValidationInterface;
 use Config\Feature;
-use Config\Services;
 use InvalidArgumentException;
 use ReflectionClass;
 use ReflectionException;
@@ -47,7 +46,7 @@
  *      - process various callbacks
  *      - allow intermingling calls to the db connection
  *
- * @phpstan-type row_array               array<int|string, float|int|null|object|string>
+ * @phpstan-type row_array               array<int|string, float|int|null|object|string|bool>
  * @phpstan-type event_data_beforeinsert array{data: row_array}
  * @phpstan-type event_data_afterinsert  array{id: int|string, data: row_array, result: bool}
  * @phpstan-type event_data_beforefind   array{id?: int|string, method: string, singleton: bool, limit?: int, offset?: int}
@@ -571,8 +570,8 @@ abstract public function countAllResults(bool $reset = true, bool $test = false)
      * Loops over records in batches, allowing you to operate on them.
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
      *
-     * @param int     $size     Size
-     * @param Closure $userFunc Callback Function
+     * @param int                                          $size     Size
+     * @param Closure(array<string, string>|object): mixed $userFunc Callback Function
      *
      * @return void
      *
@@ -640,7 +639,7 @@ public function findColumn(string $columnName)
 
         $resultSet = $this->doFindColumn($columnName);
 
-        return $resultSet ? array_column($resultSet, $columnName) : null;
+        return $resultSet !== null ? array_column($resultSet, $columnName) : null;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -1138,7 +1137,7 @@ public function delete($id = null, bool $purge = false)
             throw new InvalidArgumentException('delete(): argument #1 ($id) should not be boolean.');
         }
 
-        if ($id && (is_numeric($id) || is_string($id))) {
+        if (! in_array($id, [null, 0, '0'], true) && (is_numeric($id) || is_string($id))) {
             $id = [$id];
         }
 
@@ -1251,7 +1250,7 @@ public function errors(bool $forceDB = false)
         }
 
         // Do we have validation errors?
-        if (! $forceDB && ! $this->skipValidation && ($errors = $this->validation->getErrors())) {
+        if (! $forceDB && ! $this->skipValidation && ($errors = $this->validation->getErrors()) !== []) {
             return $errors;
         }
 
@@ -1609,7 +1608,7 @@ public function getValidationRules(array $options = []): array
     protected function ensureValidation(): void
     {
         if ($this->validation === null) {
-            $this->validation = Services::validation(null, false);
+            $this->validation = service('validation', null, false);
         }
     }
 
@@ -1800,8 +1799,6 @@ protected function objectToRawArray($object, bool $onlyChanged = true, bool $rec
             // Loop over each property,
             // saving the name/value in a new array we can return.
             foreach ($props as $prop) {
-                // Must make protected values accessible.
-                $prop->setAccessible(true);
                 $properties[$prop->getName()] = $prop->getValue($object);
             }
         }
diff --git a/system/Boot.php b/system/Boot.php
index 54468a5c..4b2d20ca 100644
--- a/system/Boot.php
+++ b/system/Boot.php
@@ -196,7 +196,16 @@ protected static function definePathConstants(Paths $paths): void
 
         // The path to the writable directory.
         if (! defined('WRITEPATH')) {
-            define('WRITEPATH', realpath(rtrim($paths->writableDirectory, '\\/ ')) . DIRECTORY_SEPARATOR);
+            $writePath = realpath(rtrim($paths->writableDirectory, '\\/ '));
+
+            if ($writePath === false) {
+                header('HTTP/1.1 503 Service Unavailable.', true, 503);
+                echo 'The WRITEPATH is not set correctly.';
+
+                // EXIT_ERROR is not yet defined
+                exit(1);
+            }
+            define('WRITEPATH', $writePath . DIRECTORY_SEPARATOR);
         }
 
         // The path to the tests directory
@@ -246,12 +255,12 @@ protected static function loadAutoloader(): void
 
     protected static function autoloadHelpers(): void
     {
-        Services::autoloader()->loadHelpers();
+        service('autoloader')->loadHelpers();
     }
 
     protected static function setExceptionHandler(): void
     {
-        Services::exceptions()->initialize();
+        service('exceptions')->initialize();
     }
 
     protected static function checkMissingExtensions(): void
@@ -290,7 +299,7 @@ protected static function checkMissingExtensions(): void
 
     protected static function initializeKint(): void
     {
-        Services::autoloader()->initializeKint(CI_DEBUG);
+        service('autoloader')->initializeKint(CI_DEBUG);
     }
 
     protected static function loadConfigCache(): FactoriesCache
@@ -308,7 +317,7 @@ protected static function loadConfigCache(): FactoriesCache
      */
     protected static function initializeCodeIgniter(): CodeIgniter
     {
-        $app = Config\Services::codeigniter();
+        $app = service('codeigniter');
         $app->initialize();
         $context = is_cli() ? 'php-cli' : 'web';
         $app->setContext($context);
diff --git a/system/CLI/CLI.php b/system/CLI/CLI.php
index bfe1511e..0b5b01b1 100644
--- a/system/CLI/CLI.php
+++ b/system/CLI/CLI.php
@@ -14,7 +14,6 @@
 namespace CodeIgniter\CLI;
 
 use CodeIgniter\CLI\Exceptions\CLIException;
-use Config\Services;
 use InvalidArgumentException;
 use Throwable;
 
@@ -226,12 +225,12 @@ public static function prompt(string $field, $options = null, $validation = null
         $extraOutput = '';
         $default     = '';
 
-        if ($validation && ! is_array($validation) && ! is_string($validation)) {
+        if (isset($validation) && ! is_array($validation) && ! is_string($validation)) {
             throw new InvalidArgumentException('$rules can only be of type string|array');
         }
 
         if (! is_array($validation)) {
-            $validation = $validation ? explode('|', $validation) : [];
+            $validation = ($validation !== null) ? explode('|', $validation) : [];
         }
 
         if (is_string($options)) {
@@ -349,7 +348,7 @@ public static function promptByMultipleKeys(string $text, array $options): array
             // return the prompt again if $input contain(s) non-numeric character, except a comma.
             // And if max from $options less than max from input,
             // it means user tried to access null value in $options
-            if (! $pattern || $maxOptions < $maxInput) {
+            if ($pattern === 0 || $maxOptions < $maxInput) {
                 static::error('Please select correctly.');
                 CLI::newLine();
 
@@ -416,7 +415,7 @@ protected static function validate(string $field, string $value, $rules): bool
     {
         $label      = $field;
         $field      = 'temp';
-        $validation = Services::validation(null, false);
+        $validation = service('validation', null, false);
         $validation->setRules([
             $field => [
                 'label' => $label,
@@ -442,7 +441,7 @@ protected static function validate(string $field, string $value, $rules): bool
      */
     public static function print(string $text = '', ?string $foreground = null, ?string $background = null)
     {
-        if ($foreground || $background) {
+        if ((string) $foreground !== '' || (string) $background !== '') {
             $text = static::color($text, $foreground, $background);
         }
 
@@ -458,7 +457,7 @@ public static function print(string $text = '', ?string $foreground = null, ?str
      */
     public static function write(string $text = '', ?string $foreground = null, ?string $background = null)
     {
-        if ($foreground || $background) {
+        if ((string) $foreground !== '' || (string) $background !== '') {
             $text = static::color($text, $foreground, $background);
         }
 
@@ -481,7 +480,7 @@ public static function error(string $text, string $foreground = 'light_red', ?st
         $stdout            = static::$isColored;
         static::$isColored = static::hasColorSupport(STDERR);
 
-        if ($foreground || $background) {
+        if ($foreground !== '' || (string) $background !== '') {
             $text = static::color($text, $foreground, $background);
         }
 
@@ -514,7 +513,7 @@ public static function beep(int $num = 1)
      */
     public static function wait(int $seconds, bool $countdown = false)
     {
-        if ($countdown === true) {
+        if ($countdown) {
             $time = $seconds;
 
             while ($time > 0) {
@@ -590,7 +589,7 @@ public static function color(string $text, string $foreground, ?string $backgrou
             throw CLIException::forInvalidColor('foreground', $foreground);
         }
 
-        if ($background !== null && ! array_key_exists($background, static::$background_colors)) {
+        if ((string) $background !== '' && ! array_key_exists($background, static::$background_colors)) {
             throw CLIException::forInvalidColor('background', $background);
         }
 
@@ -638,7 +637,7 @@ private static function getColoredText(string $text, string $foreground, ?string
     {
         $string = "\033[" . static::$foreground_colors[$foreground] . 'm';
 
-        if ($background !== null) {
+        if ((string) $background !== '') {
             $string .= "\033[" . static::$background_colors[$background] . 'm';
         }
 
@@ -655,7 +654,7 @@ private static function getColoredText(string $text, string $foreground, ?string
      */
     public static function strlen(?string $string): int
     {
-        if ($string === null) {
+        if ((string) $string === '') {
             return 0;
         }
 
@@ -769,7 +768,7 @@ public static function generateDimensions()
 
                     // Look for the next lines ending in ": <number>"
                     // Searching for "Columns:" or "Lines:" will fail on non-English locales
-                    if ($return === 0 && $output && preg_match('/:\s*(\d+)\n[^:]+:\s*(\d+)\n/', implode("\n", $output), $matches)) {
+                    if ($return === 0 && $output !== [] && preg_match('/:\s*(\d+)\n[^:]+:\s*(\d+)\n/', implode("\n", $output), $matches)) {
                         static::$height = (int) $matches[1];
                         static::$width  = (int) $matches[2];
                     }
@@ -836,7 +835,7 @@ public static function showProgress($thisStep = 1, int $totalSteps = 10)
      */
     public static function wrap(?string $string = null, int $max = 0, int $padLeft = 0): string
     {
-        if ($string === null || $string === '') {
+        if ((string) $string === '') {
             return '';
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Cache/Handlers/BaseHandler.php b/system/Cache/Handlers/BaseHandler.php
index 43d316f8..2e35864f 100644
--- a/system/Cache/Handlers/BaseHandler.php
+++ b/system/Cache/Handlers/BaseHandler.php
@@ -67,7 +67,7 @@ public static function validateKey($key, $prefix = ''): string
         }
 
         $reserved = config(Cache::class)->reservedCharacters ?? self::RESERVED_CHARACTERS;
-        if ($reserved && strpbrk($key, $reserved) !== false) {
+        if ($reserved !== '' && strpbrk($key, $reserved) !== false) {
             throw new InvalidArgumentException('Cache key contains reserved characters ' . $reserved);
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Cache/Handlers/FileHandler.php b/system/Cache/Handlers/FileHandler.php
index cf45a654..525616a7 100644
--- a/system/Cache/Handlers/FileHandler.php
+++ b/system/Cache/Handlers/FileHandler.php
@@ -308,7 +308,7 @@ protected function deleteFiles(string $path, bool $delDir = false, bool $htdocs
             if ($filename !== '.' && $filename !== '..') {
                 if (is_dir($path . DIRECTORY_SEPARATOR . $filename) && $filename[0] !== '.') {
                     $this->deleteFiles($path . DIRECTORY_SEPARATOR . $filename, $delDir, $htdocs, $_level + 1);
-                } elseif ($htdocs !== true || ! preg_match('/^(\.htaccess|index\.(html|htm|php)|web\.config)$/i', $filename)) {
+                } elseif (! $htdocs || preg_match('/^(\.htaccess|index\.(html|htm|php)|web\.config)$/i', $filename) !== 1) {
                     @unlink($path . DIRECTORY_SEPARATOR . $filename);
                 }
             }
@@ -316,7 +316,7 @@ protected function deleteFiles(string $path, bool $delDir = false, bool $htdocs
 
         closedir($currentDir);
 
-        return ($delDir === true && $_level > 0) ? @rmdir($path) : true;
+        return ($delDir && $_level > 0) ? @rmdir($path) : true;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -337,13 +337,13 @@ protected function getDirFileInfo(string $sourceDir, bool $topLevelOnly = true,
         $relativePath     = $sourceDir;
 
         if ($fp = @opendir($sourceDir)) {
-            // reset the array and make sure $source_dir has a trailing slash on the initial call
+            // reset the array and make sure $sourceDir has a trailing slash on the initial call
             if ($_recursion === false) {
                 $_filedata = [];
                 $sourceDir = rtrim(realpath($sourceDir) ?: $sourceDir, DIRECTORY_SEPARATOR) . DIRECTORY_SEPARATOR;
             }
 
-            // Used to be foreach (scandir($source_dir, 1) as $file), but scandir() is simply not as fast
+            // Used to be foreach (scandir($sourceDir, 1) as $file), but scandir() is simply not as fast
             while (false !== ($file = readdir($fp))) {
                 if (is_dir($sourceDir . $file) && $file[0] !== '.' && $topLevelOnly === false) {
                     $this->getDirFileInfo($sourceDir . $file . DIRECTORY_SEPARATOR, $topLevelOnly, true);
diff --git a/system/Cache/Handlers/PredisHandler.php b/system/Cache/Handlers/PredisHandler.php
index 59e35aa4..fc018503 100644
--- a/system/Cache/Handlers/PredisHandler.php
+++ b/system/Cache/Handlers/PredisHandler.php
@@ -19,6 +19,7 @@
 use Exception;
 use Predis\Client;
 use Predis\Collection\Iterator\Keyspace;
+use Predis\Response\Status;
 
 /**
  * Predis cache handler
@@ -121,7 +122,7 @@ public function save(string $key, $value, int $ttl = 60)
                 return false;
         }
 
-        if (! $this->redis->hmset($key, ['__ci_type' => $dataType, '__ci_value' => $value])) {
+        if (! $this->redis->hmset($key, ['__ci_type' => $dataType, '__ci_value' => $value]) instanceof Status) {
             return false;
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Cache/Handlers/RedisHandler.php b/system/Cache/Handlers/RedisHandler.php
index 22f4e435..6cd43506 100644
--- a/system/Cache/Handlers/RedisHandler.php
+++ b/system/Cache/Handlers/RedisHandler.php
@@ -108,7 +108,7 @@ public function initialize()
     public function get(string $key)
     {
         $key  = static::validateKey($key, $this->prefix);
-        $data = $this->redis->hMGet($key, ['__ci_type', '__ci_value']);
+        $data = $this->redis->hMget($key, ['__ci_type', '__ci_value']);
 
         if (! isset($data['__ci_type'], $data['__ci_value']) || $data['__ci_value'] === false) {
             return null;
@@ -147,7 +147,7 @@ public function save(string $key, $value, int $ttl = 60)
                 return false;
         }
 
-        if (! $this->redis->hMSet($key, ['__ci_type' => $dataType, '__ci_value' => $value])) {
+        if (! $this->redis->hMset($key, ['__ci_type' => $dataType, '__ci_value' => $value])) {
             return false;
         }
 
diff --git a/system/CodeIgniter.php b/system/CodeIgniter.php
index 48fbc9d7..af1ef4ed 100644
--- a/system/CodeIgniter.php
+++ b/system/CodeIgniter.php
@@ -56,7 +56,7 @@ class CodeIgniter
     /**
      * The current version of CodeIgniter Framework
      */
-    public const CI_VERSION = '4.5.5';
+    public const CI_VERSION = '4.5.6';
 
     /**
      * App startup time.
@@ -819,7 +819,7 @@ protected function tryToRouteIt(?RouteCollectionInterface $routes = null)
     {
         $this->benchmark->start('routing');
 
-        if ($routes === null) {
+        if (! $routes instanceof RouteCollectionInterface) {
             $routes = service('routes')->loadRoutes();
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Commands/ListCommands.php b/system/Commands/ListCommands.php
index 3411b103..8761e2bb 100644
--- a/system/Commands/ListCommands.php
+++ b/system/Commands/ListCommands.php
@@ -71,6 +71,8 @@ class ListCommands extends BaseCommand
 
     /**
      * Displays the help for the spark cli script itself.
+     *
+     * @return int
      */
     public function run(array $params)
     {
@@ -78,7 +80,7 @@ public function run(array $params)
         ksort($commands);
 
         // Check for 'simple' format
-        return array_key_exists('simple', $params) || CLI::getOption('simple')
+        return array_key_exists('simple', $params) || CLI::getOption('simple') === true
             ? $this->listSimple($commands)
             : $this->listFull($commands);
     }
@@ -86,7 +88,7 @@ public function run(array $params)
     /**
      * Lists the commands with accompanying info.
      *
-     * @return void
+     * @return int
      */
     protected function listFull(array $commands)
     {
@@ -124,17 +126,21 @@ protected function listFull(array $commands)
                 CLI::newLine();
             }
         }
+
+        return EXIT_SUCCESS;
     }
 
     /**
      * Lists the commands only.
      *
-     * @return void
+     * @return int
      */
     protected function listSimple(array $commands)
     {
         foreach (array_keys($commands) as $title) {
             CLI::write($title);
         }
+
+        return EXIT_SUCCESS;
     }
 }
diff --git a/system/Commands/Server/Serve.php b/system/Commands/Server/Serve.php
index 82e58998..594e4e58 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Server/Serve.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Server/Serve.php
@@ -110,7 +110,7 @@ public function run(array $params)
         // to ensure our environment is set and it simulates basic mod_rewrite.
         passthru($php . ' -S ' . $host . ':' . $port . ' -t ' . $docroot . ' ' . $rewrite, $status);
 
-        if ($status && $this->portOffset < $this->tries) {
+        if ($status !== EXIT_SUCCESS && $this->portOffset < $this->tries) {
             $this->portOffset++;
 
             $this->run($params);
diff --git a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes.php b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes.php
index 9adcc1bc..a0f81f6b 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes.php
@@ -86,7 +86,7 @@ public function run(array $params)
         $host          = $params['host'] ?? null;
 
         // Set HTTP_HOST
-        if ($host) {
+        if ($host !== null) {
             $request              = service('request');
             $_SERVER              = $request->getServer();
             $_SERVER['HTTP_HOST'] = $host;
@@ -96,7 +96,7 @@ public function run(array $params)
         $collection = service('routes')->loadRoutes();
 
         // Reset HTTP_HOST
-        if ($host) {
+        if ($host !== null) {
             unset($_SERVER['HTTP_HOST']);
         }
 
@@ -139,7 +139,9 @@ public function run(array $params)
                 $autoRoutes = $autoRouteCollector->get();
 
                 // Check for Module Routes.
-                if ($routingConfig = config(Routing::class)) {
+                $routingConfig = config(Routing::class);
+
+                if ($routingConfig instanceof Routing) {
                     foreach ($routingConfig->moduleRoutes as $uri => $namespace) {
                         $autoRouteCollector = new AutoRouteCollectorImproved(
                             $namespace,
@@ -188,7 +190,7 @@ public function run(array $params)
             usort($tbody, static fn ($handler1, $handler2) => strcmp($handler1[3], $handler2[3]));
         }
 
-        if ($host) {
+        if ($host !== null) {
             CLI::write('Host: ' . $host);
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/AutoRouterImproved/AutoRouteCollector.php b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/AutoRouterImproved/AutoRouteCollector.php
index 57996934..f6a4f371 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/AutoRouterImproved/AutoRouteCollector.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/AutoRouterImproved/AutoRouteCollector.php
@@ -36,7 +36,7 @@ public function __construct(
         private readonly string $defaultMethod,
         private readonly array $httpMethods,
         private readonly array $protectedControllers,
-        private string $prefix = ''
+        private readonly string $prefix = ''
     ) {
     }
 
@@ -122,8 +122,10 @@ private function addFilters($routes)
             $filtersShortest = $filterCollector->get($route['method'], $routePath . $sampleUri);
 
             // Get common array elements
-            $filters['before'] = array_intersect($filtersLongest['before'], $filtersShortest['before']);
-            $filters['after']  = array_intersect($filtersLongest['after'], $filtersShortest['after']);
+            $filters = [
+                'before' => array_intersect($filtersLongest['before'], $filtersShortest['before']),
+                'after'  => array_intersect($filtersLongest['after'], $filtersShortest['after']),
+            ];
 
             $route['before'] = implode(' ', array_map(class_basename(...), $filters['before']));
             $route['after']  = implode(' ', array_map(class_basename(...), $filters['after']));
diff --git a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/AutoRouterImproved/ControllerMethodReader.php b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/AutoRouterImproved/ControllerMethodReader.php
index e08a16ff..2755a389 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/AutoRouterImproved/ControllerMethodReader.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/AutoRouterImproved/ControllerMethodReader.php
@@ -221,7 +221,7 @@ private function getRouteForDefaultController(
         if ($classShortname === $defaultController) {
             $pattern                = '#' . preg_quote(lcfirst($defaultController), '#') . '\z#';
             $routeWithoutController = rtrim(preg_replace($pattern, '', $uriByClass), '/');
-            $routeWithoutController = $routeWithoutController ?: '/';
+            $routeWithoutController = $routeWithoutController !== '' && $routeWithoutController !== '0' ? $routeWithoutController : '/';
 
             [$params, $routeParams] = $this->getParameters($method);
 
diff --git a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/ControllerMethodReader.php b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/ControllerMethodReader.php
index c443b669..b40a832b 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/ControllerMethodReader.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/ControllerMethodReader.php
@@ -161,7 +161,7 @@ private function getRouteWithoutController(
 
         $pattern                = '#' . preg_quote(lcfirst($defaultController), '#') . '\z#';
         $routeWithoutController = rtrim(preg_replace($pattern, '', $uriByClass), '/');
-        $routeWithoutController = $routeWithoutController ?: '/';
+        $routeWithoutController = $routeWithoutController !== '' && $routeWithoutController !== '0' ? $routeWithoutController : '/';
 
         return [[
             'route'   => $routeWithoutController,
diff --git a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/FilterCollector.php b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/FilterCollector.php
index 002a529b..b646dcb2 100644
--- a/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/FilterCollector.php
+++ b/system/Commands/Utilities/Routes/FilterCollector.php
@@ -13,7 +13,6 @@
 
 namespace CodeIgniter\Commands\Utilities\Routes;
 
-use CodeIgniter\Config\Services;
 use CodeIgniter\Filters\Filters;
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\Method;
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\Request;
@@ -68,7 +67,7 @@ public function get(string $method, string $uri): array
             ];
         }
 
-        $request = Services::incomingrequest(null, false);
+        $request = service('incomingrequest', null, false);
         $request->setMethod($method);
 
         $router  = $this->createRouter($request);
@@ -86,7 +85,7 @@ public function get(string $method, string $uri): array
      */
     public function getRequiredFilters(): array
     {
-        $request = Services::incomingrequest(null, false);
+        $request = service('incomingrequest', null, false);
         $request->setMethod(Method::GET);
 
         $router  = $this->createRouter($request);
diff --git a/system/Common.php b/system/Common.php
index dcc9487c..b647c9d2 100644
--- a/system/Common.php
+++ b/system/Common.php
@@ -441,7 +441,7 @@ function esc($data, string $context = 'html', ?string $encoding = null)
                 $escaper = new Escaper($encoding);
             }
 
-            if ($encoding && $escaper->getEncoding() !== $encoding) {
+            if ($encoding !== null && $escaper->getEncoding() !== $encoding) {
                 $escaper = new Escaper($encoding);
             }
 
@@ -580,8 +580,8 @@ function helper($filenames): void
         foreach ($filenames as $filename) {
             // Store our system and application helper
             // versions so that we can control the load ordering.
-            $systemHelper  = null;
-            $appHelper     = null;
+            $systemHelper  = '';
+            $appHelper     = '';
             $localIncludes = [];
 
             if (! str_contains($filename, '_helper')) {
@@ -598,7 +598,7 @@ function helper($filenames): void
             if (str_contains($filename, '\\')) {
                 $path = $loader->locateFile($filename, 'Helpers');
 
-                if (empty($path)) {
+                if ($path !== '') {
                     throw FileNotFoundException::forFileNotFound($filename);
                 }
 
@@ -620,7 +620,7 @@ function helper($filenames): void
                 }
 
                 // App-level helpers should override all others
-                if (! empty($appHelper)) {
+                if ($appHelper !== '') {
                     $includes[] = $appHelper;
                     $loaded[]   = $filename;
                 }
@@ -629,7 +629,7 @@ function helper($filenames): void
                 $includes = [...$includes, ...$localIncludes];
 
                 // And the system default one should be added in last.
-                if (! empty($systemHelper)) {
+                if ($systemHelper !== '') {
                     $includes[] = $systemHelper;
                     $loaded[]   = $filename;
                 }
@@ -739,13 +739,13 @@ function lang(string $line, array $args = [], ?string $locale = null)
         // Get active locale
         $activeLocale = $language->getLocale();
 
-        if ($locale && $locale !== $activeLocale) {
+        if ((string) $locale !== '' && $locale !== $activeLocale) {
             $language->setLocale($locale);
         }
 
         $lines = $language->getLine($line, $args);
 
-        if ($locale && $locale !== $activeLocale) {
+        if ((string) $locale !== '' && $locale !== $activeLocale) {
             // Reset to active locale
             $language->setLocale($activeLocale);
         }
@@ -849,7 +849,7 @@ function redirect(?string $route = null): RedirectResponse
     {
         $response = service('redirectresponse');
 
-        if ($route !== null) {
+        if ((string) $route !== '') {
             return $response->route($route);
         }
 
@@ -869,7 +869,7 @@ function _solidus(?DocTypes $docTypesConfig = null): string
     {
         static $docTypes = null;
 
-        if ($docTypesConfig !== null) {
+        if ($docTypesConfig instanceof DocTypes) {
             $docTypes = $docTypesConfig;
         }
 
@@ -1092,7 +1092,7 @@ function stringify_attributes($attributes, bool $js = false): string
     {
         $atts = '';
 
-        if (empty($attributes)) {
+        if ($attributes === '' || $attributes === [] || $attributes === null) {
             return $atts;
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Config/DotEnv.php b/system/Config/DotEnv.php
index db7152fd..d4a7d9e8 100644
--- a/system/Config/DotEnv.php
+++ b/system/Config/DotEnv.php
@@ -94,7 +94,7 @@ public function parse(): ?array
      */
     protected function setVariable(string $name, string $value = '')
     {
-        if (! getenv($name, true)) {
+        if (getenv($name, true) === false) {
             putenv("{$name}={$value}");
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Config/Factories.php b/system/Config/Factories.php
index d98664a2..b845d582 100644
--- a/system/Config/Factories.php
+++ b/system/Config/Factories.php
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ final class Factories
      *
      * @var array<string, array<string, bool|string|null>>
      */
-    private static $options = [];
+    private static array $options = [];
 
     /**
      * Explicit options for the Config
@@ -65,7 +65,7 @@ final class Factories
      *
      * @var array<string, array<string, class-string>>
      */
-    private static $aliases = [];
+    private static array $aliases = [];
 
     /**
      * Store for instances of any component that
@@ -78,7 +78,7 @@ final class Factories
      *
      * @var array<string, array<class-string, object>>
      */
-    private static $instances = [];
+    private static array $instances = [];
 
     /**
      * Whether the component instances are updated?
@@ -87,7 +87,7 @@ final class Factories
      *
      * @internal For caching only
      */
-    private static $updated = [];
+    private static array $updated = [];
 
     /**
      * Define the class to load. You can *override* the concrete class.
@@ -162,7 +162,7 @@ public static function __callStatic(string $component, array $arguments)
         }
 
         // Try to locate the class
-        if (! $class = self::locateClass($options, $alias)) {
+        if (($class = self::locateClass($options, $alias)) === null) {
             return null;
         }
 
@@ -213,7 +213,7 @@ private static function getDefinedInstance(array $options, string $alias, array
         }
 
         // Try to locate the class
-        if (! $class = self::locateClass($options, $alias)) {
+        if (($class = self::locateClass($options, $alias)) === null) {
             return null;
         }
 
@@ -310,7 +310,7 @@ class_exists($alias, false)
         }
         // No namespace? Search for it
         // Check all namespaces, prioritizing App and modules
-        elseif (! $files = $locator->search($options['path'] . DIRECTORY_SEPARATOR . $alias)) {
+        elseif (($files = $locator->search($options['path'] . DIRECTORY_SEPARATOR . $alias)) === []) {
             return null;
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Config/Services.php b/system/Config/Services.php
index e37b1278..aa8c180a 100644
--- a/system/Config/Services.php
+++ b/system/Config/Services.php
@@ -202,7 +202,7 @@ public static function csp(?CSPConfig $config = null, bool $getShared = true)
      */
     public static function curlrequest(array $options = [], ?ResponseInterface $response = null, ?App $config = null, bool $getShared = true)
     {
-        if ($getShared === true) {
+        if ($getShared) {
             return static::getSharedInstance('curlrequest', $options, $response, $config);
         }
 
@@ -211,7 +211,7 @@ public static function curlrequest(array $options = [], ?ResponseInterface $resp
 
         return new CURLRequest(
             $config,
-            new URI($options['base_uri'] ?? null),
+            new URI($options['baseURI'] ?? null),
             $response,
             $options
         );
@@ -230,7 +230,7 @@ public static function email($config = null, bool $getShared = true)
             return static::getSharedInstance('email', $config);
         }
 
-        if (empty($config) || ! (is_array($config) || $config instanceof EmailConfig)) {
+        if (empty($config) || (! is_array($config) && ! $config instanceof EmailConfig)) {
             $config = config(EmailConfig::class);
         }
 
@@ -345,7 +345,7 @@ public static function image(?string $handler = null, ?Images $config = null, bo
         $config ??= config(Images::class);
         assert($config instanceof Images);
 
-        $handler = $handler ?: $config->defaultHandler;
+        $handler = $handler !== null && $handler !== '' && $handler !== '0' ? $handler : $config->defaultHandler;
         $class   = $config->handlers[$handler];
 
         return new $class($config);
@@ -385,7 +385,7 @@ public static function language(?string $locale = null, bool $getShared = true)
         }
 
         // Use '?:' for empty string check
-        $locale = $locale ?: $requestLocale;
+        $locale = $locale !== null && $locale !== '' && $locale !== '0' ? $locale : $requestLocale;
 
         return new Language($locale);
     }
@@ -484,7 +484,7 @@ public static function parser(?string $viewPath = null, ?ViewConfig $config = nu
             return static::getSharedInstance('parser', $viewPath, $config);
         }
 
-        $viewPath = $viewPath ?: (new Paths())->viewDirectory;
+        $viewPath = $viewPath !== null && $viewPath !== '' && $viewPath !== '0' ? $viewPath : (new Paths())->viewDirectory;
         $config ??= config(ViewConfig::class);
 
         return new Parser($config, $viewPath, AppServices::get('locator'), CI_DEBUG, AppServices::get('logger'));
@@ -503,7 +503,7 @@ public static function renderer(?string $viewPath = null, ?ViewConfig $config =
             return static::getSharedInstance('renderer', $viewPath, $config);
         }
 
-        $viewPath = $viewPath ?: (new Paths())->viewDirectory;
+        $viewPath = $viewPath !== null && $viewPath !== '' && $viewPath !== '0' ? $viewPath : (new Paths())->viewDirectory;
         $config ??= config(ViewConfig::class);
 
         return new View($config, $viewPath, AppServices::get('locator'), CI_DEBUG, AppServices::get('logger'));
@@ -705,7 +705,7 @@ public static function session(?SessionConfig $config = null, bool $getShared =
             // See https://www.php.net/manual/en/function.session-cache-limiter.php.
             // The headers are not managed by CI's Response class.
             // So, we remove CI's default Cache-Control header.
-            AppServices::response()->removeHeader('Cache-Control');
+            AppServices::get('response')->removeHeader('Cache-Control');
 
             $session->start();
         }
diff --git a/system/Controller.php b/system/Controller.php
index fc0c41bf..9c6e7ee3 100644
--- a/system/Controller.php
+++ b/system/Controller.php
@@ -15,6 +15,7 @@
 
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\CLIRequest;
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\Exceptions\HTTPException;
+use CodeIgniter\HTTP\Exceptions\RedirectException;
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\IncomingRequest;
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\RequestInterface;
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\ResponseInterface;
@@ -77,7 +78,7 @@ class Controller
      *
      * @return void
      *
-     * @throws HTTPException
+     * @throws HTTPException|RedirectException
      */
     public function initController(RequestInterface $request, ResponseInterface $response, LoggerInterface $logger)
     {
@@ -105,7 +106,7 @@ public function initController(RequestInterface $request, ResponseInterface $res
      *
      * @return void
      *
-     * @throws HTTPException
+     * @throws HTTPException|RedirectException
      */
     protected function forceHTTPS(int $duration = 31_536_000)
     {
diff --git a/system/Cookie/Cookie.php b/system/Cookie/Cookie.php
index 01b10db1..d75cce26 100644
--- a/system/Cookie/Cookie.php
+++ b/system/Cookie/Cookie.php
@@ -482,7 +482,7 @@ public function withNeverExpiring()
      */
     public function withPath(?string $path)
     {
-        $path = $path ?: self::$defaults['path'];
+        $path = $path !== null && $path !== '' && $path !== '0' ? $path : self::$defaults['path'];
         $this->validatePrefix($this->prefix, $this->secure, $path, $this->domain);
 
         $cookie = clone $this;
diff --git a/system/Database/BaseBuilder.php b/system/Database/BaseBuilder.php
index 9d5a02db..e738a331 100644
--- a/system/Database/BaseBuilder.php
+++ b/system/Database/BaseBuilder.php
@@ -579,7 +579,7 @@ public function distinct(bool $val = true)
      */
     public function from($from, bool $overwrite = false): self
     {
-        if ($overwrite === true) {
+        if ($overwrite) {
             $this->QBFrom = [];
             $this->db->setAliasedTables([]);
         }
@@ -769,7 +769,7 @@ protected function whereHaving(string $qbKey, $key, $value = null, string $type
         foreach ($keyValue as $k => $v) {
             $prefix = empty($this->{$qbKey}) ? $this->groupGetType('') : $this->groupGetType($type);
 
-            if ($rawSqlOnly === true) {
+            if ($rawSqlOnly) {
                 $k  = '';
                 $op = '';
             } elseif ($v !== null) {
@@ -836,7 +836,7 @@ protected function whereHaving(string $qbKey, $key, $value = null, string $type
      * Generates a WHERE field IN('item', 'item') SQL query,
      * joined with 'AND' if appropriate.
      *
-     * @param array|BaseBuilder|Closure|string $values The values searched on, or anonymous function with subquery
+     * @param array|BaseBuilder|(Closure(BaseBuilder): BaseBuilder)|null $values The values searched on, or anonymous function with subquery
      *
      * @return $this
      */
@@ -849,7 +849,7 @@ public function whereIn(?string $key = null, $values = null, ?bool $escape = nul
      * Generates a WHERE field IN('item', 'item') SQL query,
      * joined with 'OR' if appropriate.
      *
-     * @param array|BaseBuilder|Closure|string $values The values searched on, or anonymous function with subquery
+     * @param array|BaseBuilder|(Closure(BaseBuilder): BaseBuilder)|null $values The values searched on, or anonymous function with subquery
      *
      * @return $this
      */
@@ -862,7 +862,7 @@ public function orWhereIn(?string $key = null, $values = null, ?bool $escape = n
      * Generates a WHERE field NOT IN('item', 'item') SQL query,
      * joined with 'AND' if appropriate.
      *
-     * @param array|BaseBuilder|Closure|string $values The values searched on, or anonymous function with subquery
+     * @param array|BaseBuilder|(Closure(BaseBuilder): BaseBuilder)|null $values The values searched on, or anonymous function with subquery
      *
      * @return $this
      */
@@ -875,7 +875,7 @@ public function whereNotIn(?string $key = null, $values = null, ?bool $escape =
      * Generates a WHERE field NOT IN('item', 'item') SQL query,
      * joined with 'OR' if appropriate.
      *
-     * @param array|BaseBuilder|Closure|string $values The values searched on, or anonymous function with subquery
+     * @param array|BaseBuilder|(Closure(BaseBuilder): BaseBuilder)|null $values The values searched on, or anonymous function with subquery
      *
      * @return $this
      */
@@ -888,7 +888,7 @@ public function orWhereNotIn(?string $key = null, $values = null, ?bool $escape
      * Generates a HAVING field IN('item', 'item') SQL query,
      * joined with 'AND' if appropriate.
      *
-     * @param array|BaseBuilder|Closure|string $values The values searched on, or anonymous function with subquery
+     * @param array|BaseBuilder|(Closure(BaseBuilder): BaseBuilder)|null $values The values searched on, or anonymous function with subquery
      *
      * @return $this
      */
@@ -901,7 +901,7 @@ public function havingIn(?string $key = null, $values = null, ?bool $escape = nu
      * Generates a HAVING field IN('item', 'item') SQL query,
      * joined with 'OR' if appropriate.
      *
-     * @param array|BaseBuilder|Closure|string $values The values searched on, or anonymous function with subquery
+     * @param array|BaseBuilder|(Closure(BaseBuilder): BaseBuilder)|null $values The values searched on, or anonymous function with subquery
      *
      * @return $this
      */
@@ -914,7 +914,7 @@ public function orHavingIn(?string $key = null, $values = null, ?bool $escape =
      * Generates a HAVING field NOT IN('item', 'item') SQL query,
      * joined with 'AND' if appropriate.
      *
-     * @param array|BaseBuilder|Closure|string $values The values searched on, or anonymous function with subquery
+     * @param array|BaseBuilder|(Closure(BaseBuilder):BaseBuilder)|null $values The values searched on, or anonymous function with subquery
      *
      * @return $this
      */
@@ -927,7 +927,7 @@ public function havingNotIn(?string $key = null, $values = null, ?bool $escape =
      * Generates a HAVING field NOT IN('item', 'item') SQL query,
      * joined with 'OR' if appropriate.
      *
-     * @param array|BaseBuilder|Closure|string $values The values searched on, or anonymous function with subquery
+     * @param array|BaseBuilder|(Closure(BaseBuilder): BaseBuilder)|null $values The values searched on, or anonymous function with subquery
      *
      * @return $this
      */
@@ -942,8 +942,8 @@ public function orHavingNotIn(?string $key = null, $values = null, ?bool $escape
      * @used-by whereNotIn()
      * @used-by orWhereNotIn()
      *
-     * @param non-empty-string|null          $key
-     * @param array|BaseBuilder|Closure|null $values The values searched on, or anonymous function with subquery
+     * @param non-empty-string|null                                      $key
+     * @param array|BaseBuilder|(Closure(BaseBuilder): BaseBuilder)|null $values The values searched on, or anonymous function with subquery
      *
      * @return $this
      *
@@ -1150,8 +1150,8 @@ protected function _like($field, string $match = '', string $type = 'AND ', stri
         $keyValue = ! is_array($field) ? [$field => $match] : $field;
 
         foreach ($keyValue as $k => $v) {
-            if ($insensitiveSearch === true) {
-                $v = strtolower($v);
+            if ($insensitiveSearch) {
+                $v = mb_strtolower($v, 'UTF-8');
             }
 
             $prefix = empty($this->{$clause}) ? $this->groupGetType('') : $this->groupGetType($type);
@@ -1187,7 +1187,7 @@ protected function _like($field, string $match = '', string $type = 'AND ', stri
      */
     protected function _like_statement(?string $prefix, string $column, ?string $not, string $bind, bool $insensitiveSearch = false): string
     {
-        if ($insensitiveSearch === true) {
+        if ($insensitiveSearch) {
             return "{$prefix} LOWER(" . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($column) . ") {$not} LIKE :{$bind}:";
         }
 
@@ -1197,7 +1197,7 @@ protected function _like_statement(?string $prefix, string $column, ?string $not
     /**
      * Add UNION statement
      *
-     * @param BaseBuilder|Closure $union
+     * @param BaseBuilder|Closure(BaseBuilder): BaseBuilder $union
      *
      * @return $this
      */
@@ -1209,7 +1209,7 @@ public function union($union)
     /**
      * Add UNION ALL statement
      *
-     * @param BaseBuilder|Closure $union
+     * @param BaseBuilder|Closure(BaseBuilder): BaseBuilder $union
      *
      * @return $this
      */
@@ -1222,7 +1222,7 @@ public function unionAll($union)
      * @used-by union()
      * @used-by unionAll()
      *
-     * @param BaseBuilder|Closure $union
+     * @param BaseBuilder|Closure(BaseBuilder): BaseBuilder $union
      *
      * @return $this
      */
@@ -1599,7 +1599,7 @@ public function getCompiledSelect(bool $reset = true): string
     {
         $select = $this->compileSelect();
 
-        if ($reset === true) {
+        if ($reset) {
             $this->resetSelect();
         }
 
@@ -1643,7 +1643,7 @@ public function get(?int $limit = null, int $offset = 0, bool $reset = true)
             ? $this->getCompiledSelect($reset)
             : $this->db->query($this->compileSelect(), $this->binds, false);
 
-        if ($reset === true) {
+        if ($reset) {
             $this->resetSelect();
 
             // Clear our binds so we don't eat up memory
@@ -1678,7 +1678,7 @@ public function countAll(bool $reset = true)
 
         $query = $query->getRow();
 
-        if ($reset === true) {
+        if ($reset) {
             $this->resetSelect();
         }
 
@@ -1727,7 +1727,7 @@ public function countAllResults(bool $reset = true)
 
         $result = $this->db->query($sql, $this->binds, false);
 
-        if ($reset === true) {
+        if ($reset) {
             $this->resetSelect();
         } elseif (! isset($this->QBOrderBy)) {
             $this->QBOrderBy = $orderBy;
@@ -1736,7 +1736,7 @@ public function countAllResults(bool $reset = true)
         // Restore the LIMIT setting
         $this->QBLimit = $limit;
 
-        $row = ! $result instanceof ResultInterface ? null : $result->getRow();
+        $row = $result instanceof ResultInterface ? $result->getRow() : null;
 
         if (empty($row)) {
             return 0;
@@ -1781,7 +1781,7 @@ public function getWhere($where = null, ?int $limit = null, ?int $offset = 0, bo
             ? $this->getCompiledSelect($reset)
             : $this->db->query($this->compileSelect(), $this->binds, false);
 
-        if ($reset === true) {
+        if ($reset) {
             $this->resetSelect();
 
             // Clear our binds so we don't eat up memory
@@ -2297,7 +2297,7 @@ public function getCompiledInsert(bool $reset = true)
             array_values($this->QBSet)
         );
 
-        if ($reset === true) {
+        if ($reset) {
             $this->resetWrite();
         }
 
@@ -2466,7 +2466,7 @@ public function getCompiledUpdate(bool $reset = true)
 
         $sql = $this->_update($this->QBFrom[0], $this->QBSet);
 
-        if ($reset === true) {
+        if ($reset) {
             $this->resetWrite();
         }
 
@@ -3167,11 +3167,11 @@ protected function compileWhereHaving(string $qbKey): string
                     $op = $this->getOperator($condition);
                     if (
                         $op === false
-                        || ! preg_match(
+                        || preg_match(
                             '/^(\(?)(.*)(' . preg_quote($op, '/') . ')\s*(.*(?<!\)))?(\)?)$/i',
                             $condition,
                             $matches
-                        )
+                        ) !== 1
                     ) {
                         continue;
                     }
@@ -3558,9 +3558,9 @@ protected function isSubquery($value): bool
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param BaseBuilder|Closure $builder
-     * @param bool                $wrapped Wrap the subquery in brackets
-     * @param string              $alias   Subquery alias
+     * @param BaseBuilder|Closure(BaseBuilder): BaseBuilder $builder
+     * @param bool                                          $wrapped Wrap the subquery in brackets
+     * @param string                                        $alias   Subquery alias
      */
     protected function buildSubquery($builder, bool $wrapped = false, string $alias = ''): string
     {
diff --git a/system/Database/BaseConnection.php b/system/Database/BaseConnection.php
index 56340c8d..e38c682a 100644
--- a/system/Database/BaseConnection.php
+++ b/system/Database/BaseConnection.php
@@ -406,7 +406,7 @@ public function initialize()
         /* If an established connection is available, then there's
          * no need to connect and select the database.
          *
-         * Depending on the database driver, conn_id can be either
+         * Depending on the database driver, connID can be either
          * boolean TRUE, a resource or an object.
          */
         if ($this->connID) {
@@ -610,7 +610,7 @@ abstract protected function execute(string $sql);
      */
     public function query(string $sql, $binds = null, bool $setEscapeFlags = true, string $queryClass = '')
     {
-        $queryClass = $queryClass ?: $this->queryClass;
+        $queryClass = $queryClass !== '' && $queryClass !== '0' ? $queryClass : $this->queryClass;
 
         if (empty($this->connID)) {
             $this->initialize();
@@ -684,7 +684,7 @@ public function query(string $sql, $binds = null, bool $setEscapeFlags = true, s
                 // Let others do something with this query.
                 Events::trigger('DBQuery', $query);
 
-                if ($exception !== null) {
+                if ($exception instanceof DatabaseException) {
                     throw new DatabaseException(
                         $exception->getMessage(),
                         $exception->getCode(),
@@ -846,9 +846,9 @@ public function transBegin(bool $testMode = false): bool
         }
 
         // Reset the transaction failure flag.
-        // If the $test_mode flag is set to TRUE transactions will be rolled back
+        // If the $testMode flag is set to TRUE transactions will be rolled back
         // even if the queries produce a successful result.
-        $this->transFailure = ($testMode === true);
+        $this->transFailure = $testMode;
 
         if ($this->_transBegin()) {
             $this->transDepth++;
@@ -959,6 +959,8 @@ public function newQuery(): BaseBuilder
      *                     ->get();
      *           })
      *
+     * @param Closure(BaseConnection): mixed $func
+     *
      * @return BasePreparedQuery|null
      */
     public function prepare(Closure $func, array $options = [])
@@ -1124,7 +1126,7 @@ public function protectIdentifiers($item, bool $prefixSingle = false, ?bool $pro
                 $item = preg_replace('/^' . $this->swapPre . '(\S+?)/', $this->DBPrefix . '\\1', $item);
             }
             // Do we prefix an item with no segments?
-            elseif ($prefixSingle === true && ! str_starts_with($item, $this->DBPrefix)) {
+            elseif ($prefixSingle && ! str_starts_with($item, $this->DBPrefix)) {
                 $item = $this->DBPrefix . $item;
             }
         }
@@ -1147,7 +1149,7 @@ private function protectDotItem(string $item, string $alias, bool $protectIdenti
         // NOTE: The ! empty() condition prevents this method
         // from breaking when QB isn't enabled.
         if (! empty($this->aliasedTables) && in_array($parts[0], $this->aliasedTables, true)) {
-            if ($protectIdentifiers === true) {
+            if ($protectIdentifiers) {
                 foreach ($parts as $key => $val) {
                     if (! in_array($val, $this->reservedIdentifiers, true)) {
                         $parts[$key] = $this->escapeIdentifiers($val);
@@ -1198,7 +1200,7 @@ private function protectDotItem(string $item, string $alias, bool $protectIdenti
             $item = implode('.', $parts);
         }
 
-        if ($protectIdentifiers === true) {
+        if ($protectIdentifiers) {
             $item = $this->escapeIdentifiers($item);
         }
 
@@ -1372,7 +1374,7 @@ public function escapeString($str, bool $like = false)
         $str = $this->_escapeString($str);
 
         // escape LIKE condition wildcards
-        if ($like === true) {
+        if ($like) {
             return str_replace(
                 [
                     $this->likeEscapeChar,
@@ -1501,7 +1503,7 @@ public function listTables(bool $constrainByPrefix = false)
      */
     public function tableExists(string $tableName, bool $cached = true): bool
     {
-        if ($cached === true) {
+        if ($cached) {
             return in_array($this->protectIdentifiers($tableName, true, false, false), $this->listTables(), true);
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Database/BasePreparedQuery.php b/system/Database/BasePreparedQuery.php
index 8c4f252c..6ba2f6eb 100644
--- a/system/Database/BasePreparedQuery.php
+++ b/system/Database/BasePreparedQuery.php
@@ -259,4 +259,12 @@ public function getErrorMessage(): string
     {
         return $this->errorString;
     }
+
+    /**
+     * Whether the input contain binary data.
+     */
+    protected function isBinary(string $input): bool
+    {
+        return mb_detect_encoding($input, 'UTF-8', true) === false;
+    }
 }
diff --git a/system/Database/Database.php b/system/Database/Database.php
index 23b6cd0f..e09dcdd2 100644
--- a/system/Database/Database.php
+++ b/system/Database/Database.php
@@ -96,7 +96,7 @@ protected function parseDSN(array $params): array
     {
         $dsn = parse_url($params['DSN']);
 
-        if (! $dsn) {
+        if ($dsn === 0 || $dsn === '' || $dsn === '0' || $dsn === [] || $dsn === false || $dsn === null) {
             throw new InvalidArgumentException('Your DSN connection string is invalid.');
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Database/Forge.php b/system/Database/Forge.php
index 595cd615..fc9aa54e 100644
--- a/system/Database/Forge.php
+++ b/system/Database/Forge.php
@@ -32,9 +32,9 @@ class Forge
     protected $db;
 
     /**
-     * List of fields.
+     * List of fields in the form `[name => attributes]`
      *
-     * @var array<string, array|string> [name => attributes]
+     * @var array<string, array<string, bool|string>|string>
      */
     protected $fields = [];
 
@@ -449,12 +449,12 @@ public function addForeignKey(
      */
     public function dropKey(string $table, string $keyName, bool $prefixKeyName = true): bool
     {
-        $keyName = $this->db->escapeIdentifiers(($prefixKeyName === true ? $this->db->DBPrefix : '') . $keyName);
+        $keyName = $this->db->escapeIdentifiers(($prefixKeyName ? $this->db->DBPrefix : '') . $keyName);
         $table   = $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($this->db->DBPrefix . $table);
 
         $dropKeyAsConstraint = $this->dropKeyAsConstraint($table, $keyName);
 
-        if ($dropKeyAsConstraint === true) {
+        if ($dropKeyAsConstraint) {
             $sql = sprintf(
                 $this->dropConstraintStr,
                 $table,
@@ -559,7 +559,7 @@ public function createTable(string $table, bool $ifNotExists = false, array $att
         }
 
         // If table exists lets stop here
-        if ($ifNotExists === true && $this->db->tableExists($table, false)) {
+        if ($ifNotExists && $this->db->tableExists($table, false)) {
             $this->reset();
 
             return true;
@@ -573,7 +573,7 @@ public function createTable(string $table, bool $ifNotExists = false, array $att
             }
 
             // Most databases don't support creating indexes from within the CREATE TABLE statement
-            if (! empty($this->keys)) {
+            if ($this->keys !== []) {
                 for ($i = 0, $sqls = $this->_processIndexes($table), $c = count($sqls); $i < $c; $i++) {
                     $this->db->query($sqls[$i]);
                 }
@@ -650,7 +650,7 @@ public function dropTable(string $tableName, bool $ifExists = false, bool $casca
             return false;
         }
 
-        if ($this->db->DBPrefix && str_starts_with($tableName, $this->db->DBPrefix)) {
+        if ($this->db->DBPrefix !== '' && str_starts_with($tableName, $this->db->DBPrefix)) {
             $tableName = substr($tableName, strlen($this->db->DBPrefix));
         }
 
@@ -895,7 +895,7 @@ protected function _processFields(bool $createTable = false): array
 
             $attributes = array_change_key_case($attributes, CASE_UPPER);
 
-            if ($createTable === true && empty($attributes['TYPE'])) {
+            if ($createTable && empty($attributes['TYPE'])) {
                 continue;
             }
 
@@ -942,7 +942,7 @@ protected function _processFields(bool $createTable = false): array
                 } else {
                     $field['null'] = ' NOT ' . $this->null;
                 }
-            } elseif ($createTable === true) {
+            } elseif ($createTable) {
                 $field['null'] = ' NOT ' . $this->null;
             }
 
@@ -1085,7 +1085,7 @@ protected function _processPrimaryKeys(string $table, bool $asQuery = false): st
         }
 
         if (isset($this->primaryKeys['fields']) && $this->primaryKeys['fields'] !== []) {
-            if ($asQuery === true) {
+            if ($asQuery) {
                 $sql .= 'ALTER TABLE ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($this->db->DBPrefix . $table) . ' ADD ';
             } else {
                 $sql .= ",\n\t";
@@ -1108,10 +1108,12 @@ public function processIndexes(string $table): bool
         $fk   = $this->foreignKeys;
 
         if ($this->fields === []) {
-            $this->fields = array_flip(array_map(
-                static fn ($columnName) => $columnName->name,
-                $this->db->getFieldData($this->db->DBPrefix . $table)
-            ));
+            $fieldData = $this->db->getFieldData($this->db->DBPrefix . $table);
+
+            $this->fields = array_combine(
+                array_map(static fn ($columnName) => $columnName->name, $fieldData),
+                array_fill(0, count($fieldData), [])
+            );
         }
 
         $fields = $this->fields;
@@ -1229,7 +1231,7 @@ protected function _processForeignKeys(string $table, bool $asQuery = false): ar
             $referenceTableFilled = $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($this->db->DBPrefix . $fkey['referenceTable']);
             $referenceFieldFilled = implode(', ', $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($fkey['referenceField']));
 
-            if ($asQuery === true) {
+            if ($asQuery) {
                 $sqls[$index] .= 'ALTER TABLE ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($this->db->DBPrefix . $table) . ' ADD ';
             } else {
                 $sqls[$index] .= ",\n\t";
diff --git a/system/Database/Migration.php b/system/Database/Migration.php
index 4386b744..ca9e5e0c 100644
--- a/system/Database/Migration.php
+++ b/system/Database/Migration.php
@@ -45,7 +45,7 @@ public function __construct(?Forge $forge = null)
     {
         if (isset($this->DBGroup)) {
             $this->forge = Database::forge($this->DBGroup);
-        } elseif ($forge !== null) {
+        } elseif ($forge instanceof Forge) {
             $this->forge = $forge;
         } else {
             $this->forge = Database::forge(config(Database::class)->defaultGroup);
diff --git a/system/Database/MigrationRunner.php b/system/Database/MigrationRunner.php
index 055b8ba6..13919c78 100644
--- a/system/Database/MigrationRunner.php
+++ b/system/Database/MigrationRunner.php
@@ -19,7 +19,6 @@
 use CodeIgniter\I18n\Time;
 use Config\Database;
 use Config\Migrations as MigrationsConfig;
-use Config\Services;
 use RuntimeException;
 use stdClass;
 
@@ -390,7 +389,7 @@ public function force(string $path, string $namespace, ?string $group = null)
      */
     public function findMigrations(): array
     {
-        $namespaces = $this->namespace ? [$this->namespace] : array_keys(Services::autoloader()->getNamespace());
+        $namespaces = $this->namespace !== null ? [$this->namespace] : array_keys(service('autoloader')->getNamespace());
         $migrations = [];
 
         foreach ($namespaces as $namespace) {
@@ -415,7 +414,7 @@ public function findMigrations(): array
     public function findNamespaceMigrations(string $namespace): array
     {
         $migrations = [];
-        $locator    = Services::locator(true);
+        $locator    = service('locator', true);
 
         if (! empty($this->path)) {
             helper('filesystem');
@@ -451,11 +450,11 @@ protected function migrationFromFile(string $path, string $namespace)
 
         $filename = basename($path, '.php');
 
-        if (! preg_match($this->regex, $filename)) {
+        if (preg_match($this->regex, $filename) !== 1) {
             return false;
         }
 
-        $locator = Services::locator(true);
+        $locator = service('locator', true);
 
         $migration = new stdClass();
 
@@ -525,7 +524,7 @@ protected function getMigrationNumber(string $migration): string
     {
         preg_match($this->regex, $migration, $matches);
 
-        return count($matches) ? $matches[1] : '0';
+        return $matches !== [] ? $matches[1] : '0';
     }
 
     /**
@@ -540,7 +539,7 @@ protected function getMigrationName(string $migration): string
     {
         preg_match($this->regex, $migration, $matches);
 
-        return count($matches) ? $matches[2] : '';
+        return $matches !== [] ? $matches[2] : '';
     }
 
     /**
@@ -646,7 +645,7 @@ public function getHistory(string $group = 'default'): array
         }
 
         // If a namespace was specified then use it
-        if ($this->namespace) {
+        if ($this->namespace !== null) {
             $builder->where('namespace', $this->namespace);
         }
 
@@ -701,7 +700,7 @@ public function getLastBatch(): int
             ->get()
             ->getResultObject();
 
-        $batch = is_array($batch) && count($batch)
+        $batch = is_array($batch) && $batch !== []
             ? end($batch)->batch
             : 0;
 
@@ -726,7 +725,7 @@ public function getBatchStart(int $batch): string
             ->get()
             ->getResultObject();
 
-        return count($migration) ? $migration[0]->version : '0';
+        return $migration !== [] ? $migration[0]->version : '0';
     }
 
     /**
diff --git a/system/Database/MySQLi/Connection.php b/system/Database/MySQLi/Connection.php
index 068dfba5..f98f51fb 100644
--- a/system/Database/MySQLi/Connection.php
+++ b/system/Database/MySQLi/Connection.php
@@ -57,7 +57,7 @@ class Connection extends BaseConnection
     /**
      * MySQLi object
      *
-     * Has to be preserved without being assigned to $conn_id.
+     * Has to be preserved without being assigned to $connId.
      *
      * @var false|mysqli
      */
@@ -96,7 +96,7 @@ public function connect(bool $persistent = false)
             $port     = null;
             $socket   = $this->hostname;
         } else {
-            $hostname = ($persistent === true) ? 'p:' . $this->hostname : $this->hostname;
+            $hostname = $persistent ? 'p:' . $this->hostname : $this->hostname;
             $port     = empty($this->port) ? null : $this->port;
             $socket   = '';
         }
@@ -193,7 +193,7 @@ public function connect(bool $persistent = false)
                 $clientFlags
             )) {
                 // Prior to version 5.7.3, MySQL silently downgrades to an unencrypted connection if SSL setup fails
-                if (($clientFlags & MYSQLI_CLIENT_SSL) && version_compare($this->mysqli->client_info, 'mysqlnd 5.7.3', '<=')
+                if (($clientFlags & MYSQLI_CLIENT_SSL) !== 0 && version_compare($this->mysqli->client_info, 'mysqlnd 5.7.3', '<=')
                     && empty($this->mysqli->query("SHOW STATUS LIKE 'ssl_cipher'")->fetch_object()->Value)
                 ) {
                     $this->mysqli->close();
@@ -297,7 +297,7 @@ public function getVersion(): string
     /**
      * Executes the query against the database.
      *
-     * @return false|mysqli_result;
+     * @return false|mysqli_result
      */
     protected function execute(string $sql)
     {
@@ -395,11 +395,11 @@ protected function _listTables(bool $prefixLimit = false, ?string $tableName = n
     {
         $sql = 'SHOW TABLES FROM ' . $this->escapeIdentifier($this->database);
 
-        if ($tableName !== null) {
+        if ((string) $tableName !== '') {
             return $sql . ' LIKE ' . $this->escape($tableName);
         }
 
-        if ($prefixLimit !== false && $this->DBPrefix !== '') {
+        if ($prefixLimit && $this->DBPrefix !== '') {
             return $sql . " LIKE '" . $this->escapeLikeStringDirect($this->DBPrefix) . "%'";
         }
 
@@ -462,7 +462,9 @@ protected function _indexData(string $table): array
             throw new DatabaseException(lang('Database.failGetIndexData'));
         }
 
-        if (! $indexes = $query->getResultArray()) {
+        $indexes = $query->getResultArray();
+
+        if ($indexes === []) {
             return [];
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Database/MySQLi/Forge.php b/system/Database/MySQLi/Forge.php
index 132bde12..c47ff4de 100644
--- a/system/Database/MySQLi/Forge.php
+++ b/system/Database/MySQLi/Forge.php
@@ -116,11 +116,11 @@ protected function _createTableAttributes(array $attributes): string
             }
         }
 
-        if ($this->db->charset !== '' && ! strpos($sql, 'CHARACTER SET') && ! strpos($sql, 'CHARSET')) {
+        if ($this->db->charset !== '' && ! str_contains($sql, 'CHARACTER SET') && ! str_contains($sql, 'CHARSET')) {
             $sql .= ' DEFAULT CHARACTER SET = ' . $this->db->escapeString($this->db->charset);
         }
 
-        if ($this->db->DBCollat !== '' && ! strpos($sql, 'COLLATE')) {
+        if ($this->db->DBCollat !== '' && ! str_contains($sql, 'COLLATE')) {
             $sql .= ' COLLATE = ' . $this->db->escapeString($this->db->DBCollat);
         }
 
@@ -222,7 +222,7 @@ protected function _processIndexes(string $table, bool $asQuery = false): array
                 implode('_', $this->keys[$i]['fields']) :
                 $this->keys[$i]['keyName']);
 
-            if ($asQuery === true) {
+            if ($asQuery) {
                 $sqls[$index] = 'ALTER TABLE ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($table) . " ADD {$unique}KEY "
                     . $keyName
                     . ' (' . implode(', ', $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($this->keys[$i]['fields'])) . ')';
diff --git a/system/Database/MySQLi/PreparedQuery.php b/system/Database/MySQLi/PreparedQuery.php
index e9a6c6d1..34eedc25 100644
--- a/system/Database/MySQLi/PreparedQuery.php
+++ b/system/Database/MySQLi/PreparedQuery.php
@@ -66,15 +66,19 @@ public function _execute(array $data): bool
             throw new BadMethodCallException('You must call prepare before trying to execute a prepared statement.');
         }
 
-        // First off -bind the parameters
-        $bindTypes = '';
+        // First off - bind the parameters
+        $bindTypes  = '';
+        $binaryData = [];
 
         // Determine the type string
-        foreach ($data as $item) {
+        foreach ($data as $key => $item) {
             if (is_int($item)) {
                 $bindTypes .= 'i';
             } elseif (is_numeric($item)) {
                 $bindTypes .= 'd';
+            } elseif (is_string($item) && $this->isBinary($item)) {
+                $bindTypes .= 'b';
+                $binaryData[$key] = $item;
             } else {
                 $bindTypes .= 's';
             }
@@ -83,6 +87,11 @@ public function _execute(array $data): bool
         // Bind it
         $this->statement->bind_param($bindTypes, ...$data);
 
+        // Stream binary data
+        foreach ($binaryData as $key => $value) {
+            $this->statement->send_long_data($key, $value);
+        }
+
         try {
             return $this->statement->execute();
         } catch (mysqli_sql_exception $e) {
diff --git a/system/Database/OCI8/Builder.php b/system/Database/OCI8/Builder.php
index 4423a524..24a6bb53 100644
--- a/system/Database/OCI8/Builder.php
+++ b/system/Database/OCI8/Builder.php
@@ -109,12 +109,12 @@ protected function _replace(string $table, array $keys, array $values): string
     {
         $fieldNames = array_map(static fn ($columnName) => trim($columnName, '"'), $keys);
 
-        $uniqueIndexes = array_filter($this->db->getIndexData($table), static function ($index) use ($fieldNames) {
+        $uniqueIndexes = array_filter($this->db->getIndexData($table), static function ($index) use ($fieldNames): bool {
             $hasAllFields = count(array_intersect($index->fields, $fieldNames)) === count($index->fields);
 
             return ($index->type === 'PRIMARY') && $hasAllFields;
         });
-        $replaceableFields = array_filter($keys, static function ($columnName) use ($uniqueIndexes) {
+        $replaceableFields = array_filter($keys, static function ($columnName) use ($uniqueIndexes): bool {
             foreach ($uniqueIndexes as $index) {
                 if (in_array(trim($columnName, '"'), $index->fields, true)) {
                     return false;
@@ -344,7 +344,7 @@ protected function _upsertBatch(string $table, array $keys, array $values): stri
             if (empty($constraints)) {
                 $fieldNames = array_map(static fn ($columnName) => trim($columnName, '"'), $keys);
 
-                $uniqueIndexes = array_filter($this->db->getIndexData($table), static function ($index) use ($fieldNames) {
+                $uniqueIndexes = array_filter($this->db->getIndexData($table), static function ($index) use ($fieldNames): bool {
                     $hasAllFields = count(array_intersect($index->fields, $fieldNames)) === count($index->fields);
 
                     return ($index->type === 'PRIMARY' || $index->type === 'UNIQUE') && $hasAllFields;
diff --git a/system/Database/OCI8/Connection.php b/system/Database/OCI8/Connection.php
index 2b870b75..c59d588c 100644
--- a/system/Database/OCI8/Connection.php
+++ b/system/Database/OCI8/Connection.php
@@ -274,7 +274,7 @@ protected function _listTables(bool $prefixLimit = false, ?string $tableName = n
             return $sql . ' WHERE "TABLE_NAME" LIKE ' . $this->escape($tableName);
         }
 
-        if ($prefixLimit !== false && $this->DBPrefix !== '') {
+        if ($prefixLimit && $this->DBPrefix !== '') {
             return $sql . ' WHERE "TABLE_NAME" LIKE \'' . $this->escapeLikeString($this->DBPrefix) . "%' "
                     . sprintf($this->likeEscapeStr, $this->likeEscapeChar);
         }
diff --git a/system/Database/OCI8/Forge.php b/system/Database/OCI8/Forge.php
index 5a10363b..7d81cff8 100644
--- a/system/Database/OCI8/Forge.php
+++ b/system/Database/OCI8/Forge.php
@@ -135,7 +135,7 @@ protected function _alterTable(string $alterType, string $table, $processedField
                 $wantToAddNull   = ! str_contains($processedFields[$i]['null'], ' NOT');
                 $currentNullable = $nullableMap[$processedFields[$i]['name']];
 
-                if ($wantToAddNull === true && $currentNullable === true) {
+                if ($wantToAddNull && $currentNullable === true) {
                     $processedFields[$i]['null'] = '';
                 } elseif ($processedFields[$i]['null'] === '' && $currentNullable === false) {
                     // Nullable by default
@@ -293,7 +293,7 @@ protected function _dropTable(string $table, bool $ifExists, bool $cascade)
     {
         $sql = parent::_dropTable($table, $ifExists, $cascade);
 
-        if ($sql !== true && $cascade === true) {
+        if ($sql !== true && $cascade) {
             $sql .= ' CASCADE CONSTRAINTS PURGE';
         } elseif ($sql !== true) {
             $sql .= ' PURGE';
diff --git a/system/Database/OCI8/PreparedQuery.php b/system/Database/OCI8/PreparedQuery.php
index c267f806..e1577642 100644
--- a/system/Database/OCI8/PreparedQuery.php
+++ b/system/Database/OCI8/PreparedQuery.php
@@ -16,6 +16,7 @@
 use BadMethodCallException;
 use CodeIgniter\Database\BasePreparedQuery;
 use CodeIgniter\Database\Exceptions\DatabaseException;
+use OCILob;
 
 /**
  * Prepared query for OCI8
@@ -73,12 +74,24 @@ public function _execute(array $data): bool
             throw new BadMethodCallException('You must call prepare before trying to execute a prepared statement.');
         }
 
+        $binaryData = null;
+
         foreach (array_keys($data) as $key) {
-            oci_bind_by_name($this->statement, ':' . $key, $data[$key]);
+            if (is_string($data[$key]) && $this->isBinary($data[$key])) {
+                $binaryData = oci_new_descriptor($this->db->connID, OCI_D_LOB);
+                $binaryData->writeTemporary($data[$key], OCI_TEMP_BLOB);
+                oci_bind_by_name($this->statement, ':' . $key, $binaryData, -1, OCI_B_BLOB);
+            } else {
+                oci_bind_by_name($this->statement, ':' . $key, $data[$key]);
+            }
         }
 
         $result = oci_execute($this->statement, $this->db->commitMode);
 
+        if ($binaryData instanceof OCILob) {
+            $binaryData->free();
+        }
+
         if ($result && $this->lastInsertTableName !== '') {
             $this->db->lastInsertedTableName = $this->lastInsertTableName;
         }
@@ -113,7 +126,7 @@ public function parameterize(string $sql): string
         // Track our current value
         $count = 0;
 
-        return preg_replace_callback('/\?/', static function ($matches) use (&$count) {
+        return preg_replace_callback('/\?/', static function ($matches) use (&$count): string {
             return ':' . ($count++);
         }, $sql);
     }
diff --git a/system/Database/Postgre/Builder.php b/system/Database/Postgre/Builder.php
index 0d2dce09..faae0eda 100644
--- a/system/Database/Postgre/Builder.php
+++ b/system/Database/Postgre/Builder.php
@@ -293,7 +293,7 @@ protected function _truncate(string $table): string
      */
     protected function _like_statement(?string $prefix, string $column, ?string $not, string $bind, bool $insensitiveSearch = false): string
     {
-        $op = $insensitiveSearch === true ? 'ILIKE' : 'LIKE';
+        $op = $insensitiveSearch ? 'ILIKE' : 'LIKE';
 
         return "{$prefix} {$column} {$not} {$op} :{$bind}:";
     }
@@ -368,7 +368,7 @@ protected function _updateBatch(string $table, array $keys, array $values): stri
             $sql .= 'WHERE ' . implode(
                 ' AND ',
                 array_map(
-                    static function ($key, $value) use ($table, $alias, $that) {
+                    static function ($key, $value) use ($table, $alias, $that): string|RawSql {
                         if ($value instanceof RawSql && is_string($key)) {
                             return $table . '.' . $key . ' = ' . $value;
                         }
@@ -463,7 +463,7 @@ protected function _upsertBatch(string $table, array $keys, array $values): stri
             $constraints = $this->QBOptions['constraints'] ?? [];
 
             if (empty($constraints)) {
-                $allIndexes = array_filter($this->db->getIndexData($table), static function ($index) use ($fieldNames) {
+                $allIndexes = array_filter($this->db->getIndexData($table), static function ($index) use ($fieldNames): bool {
                     $hasAllFields = count(array_intersect($index->fields, $fieldNames)) === count($index->fields);
 
                     return ($index->type === 'UNIQUE' || $index->type === 'PRIMARY') && $hasAllFields;
@@ -575,7 +575,7 @@ protected function _deleteBatch(string $table, array $keys, array $values): stri
             $sql .= 'WHERE ' . implode(
                 ' AND ',
                 array_map(
-                    static function ($key, $value) use ($table, $alias, $that) {
+                    static function ($key, $value) use ($table, $alias, $that): RawSql|string {
                         if ($value instanceof RawSql) {
                             return $value;
                         }
diff --git a/system/Database/Postgre/Connection.php b/system/Database/Postgre/Connection.php
index ec886dbd..4ce2b076 100644
--- a/system/Database/Postgre/Connection.php
+++ b/system/Database/Postgre/Connection.php
@@ -74,11 +74,11 @@ public function connect(bool $persistent = false)
             $this->convertDSN();
         }
 
-        $this->connID = $persistent === true ? pg_pconnect($this->DSN) : pg_connect($this->DSN);
+        $this->connID = $persistent ? pg_pconnect($this->DSN) : pg_connect($this->DSN);
 
         if ($this->connID !== false) {
             if (
-                $persistent === true
+                $persistent
                 && pg_connection_status($this->connID) === PGSQL_CONNECTION_BAD
                 && pg_ping($this->connID) === false
             ) {
@@ -149,8 +149,9 @@ private function convertDSN()
      */
     public function reconnect()
     {
-        if (pg_ping($this->connID) === false) {
-            $this->connID = false;
+        if ($this->connID === false || pg_ping($this->connID) === false) {
+            $this->close();
+            $this->initialize();
         }
     }
 
@@ -289,7 +290,7 @@ protected function _listTables(bool $prefixLimit = false, ?string $tableName = n
             return $sql . ' AND "table_name" LIKE ' . $this->escape($tableName);
         }
 
-        if ($prefixLimit !== false && $this->DBPrefix !== '') {
+        if ($prefixLimit && $this->DBPrefix !== '') {
             return $sql . ' AND "table_name" LIKE \''
                 . $this->escapeLikeString($this->DBPrefix) . "%' "
                 . sprintf($this->likeEscapeStr, $this->likeEscapeChar);
@@ -462,7 +463,7 @@ public function error(): array
     {
         return [
             'code'    => '',
-            'message' => pg_last_error($this->connID) ?: '',
+            'message' => pg_last_error($this->connID),
         ];
     }
 
diff --git a/system/Database/Postgre/Forge.php b/system/Database/Postgre/Forge.php
index 7a61bed5..704f3e57 100644
--- a/system/Database/Postgre/Forge.php
+++ b/system/Database/Postgre/Forge.php
@@ -118,7 +118,7 @@ protected function _alterTable(string $alterType, string $table, $processedField
                 $nullable = false;
             }
             $sqls[] = $sql . ' ALTER COLUMN ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['name'])
-                . ($nullable === true ? ' DROP' : ' SET') . ' NOT NULL';
+                . ($nullable ? ' DROP' : ' SET') . ' NOT NULL';
 
             if (! empty($field['new_name'])) {
                 $sqls[] = $sql . ' RENAME COLUMN ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['name'])
@@ -173,6 +173,10 @@ protected function _attributeType(array &$attributes)
                 $attributes['TYPE'] = 'TIMESTAMP';
                 break;
 
+            case 'BLOB':
+                $attributes['TYPE'] = 'BYTEA';
+                break;
+
             default:
                 break;
         }
@@ -195,7 +199,7 @@ protected function _dropTable(string $table, bool $ifExists, bool $cascade): str
     {
         $sql = parent::_dropTable($table, $ifExists, $cascade);
 
-        if ($cascade === true) {
+        if ($cascade) {
             $sql .= ' CASCADE';
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Database/Postgre/PreparedQuery.php b/system/Database/Postgre/PreparedQuery.php
index fbea6ac1..c55d5d8c 100644
--- a/system/Database/Postgre/PreparedQuery.php
+++ b/system/Database/Postgre/PreparedQuery.php
@@ -87,6 +87,12 @@ public function _execute(array $data): bool
             throw new BadMethodCallException('You must call prepare before trying to execute a prepared statement.');
         }
 
+        foreach ($data as &$item) {
+            if (is_string($item) && $this->isBinary($item)) {
+                $item = pg_escape_bytea($this->db->connID, $item);
+            }
+        }
+
         $this->result = pg_execute($this->db->connID, $this->name, $data);
 
         return (bool) $this->result;
@@ -119,7 +125,7 @@ public function parameterize(string $sql): string
         // Track our current value
         $count = 0;
 
-        return preg_replace_callback('/\?/', static function () use (&$count) {
+        return preg_replace_callback('/\?/', static function () use (&$count): string {
             $count++;
 
             return "\${$count}";
diff --git a/system/Database/SQLSRV/Builder.php b/system/Database/SQLSRV/Builder.php
index a6d0b8e8..c1272cdc 100644
--- a/system/Database/SQLSRV/Builder.php
+++ b/system/Database/SQLSRV/Builder.php
@@ -518,7 +518,7 @@ public function countAll(bool $reset = true)
 
         $query = $query->getRow();
 
-        if ($reset === true) {
+        if ($reset) {
             $this->resetSelect();
         }
 
@@ -699,7 +699,7 @@ protected function _upsertBatch(string $table, array $keys, array $values): stri
             if (empty($constraints)) {
                 $tableIndexes = $this->db->getIndexData($table);
 
-                $uniqueIndexes = array_filter($tableIndexes, static function ($index) use ($fieldNames) {
+                $uniqueIndexes = array_filter($tableIndexes, static function ($index) use ($fieldNames): bool {
                     $hasAllFields = count(array_intersect($index->fields, $fieldNames)) === count($index->fields);
 
                     return $index->type === 'PRIMARY' && $hasAllFields;
@@ -707,7 +707,7 @@ protected function _upsertBatch(string $table, array $keys, array $values): stri
 
                 // if no primary found then look for unique - since indexes have no order
                 if ($uniqueIndexes === []) {
-                    $uniqueIndexes = array_filter($tableIndexes, static function ($index) use ($fieldNames) {
+                    $uniqueIndexes = array_filter($tableIndexes, static function ($index) use ($fieldNames): bool {
                         $hasAllFields = count(array_intersect($index->fields, $fieldNames)) === count($index->fields);
 
                         return $index->type === 'UNIQUE' && $hasAllFields;
diff --git a/system/Database/SQLSRV/Connection.php b/system/Database/SQLSRV/Connection.php
index 7e008e27..8ded4cd0 100644
--- a/system/Database/SQLSRV/Connection.php
+++ b/system/Database/SQLSRV/Connection.php
@@ -215,7 +215,7 @@ protected function _listTables(bool $prefixLimit = false, ?string $tableName = n
             return $sql .= ' AND [TABLE_NAME] LIKE ' . $this->escape($tableName);
         }
 
-        if ($prefixLimit === true && $this->DBPrefix !== '') {
+        if ($prefixLimit && $this->DBPrefix !== '') {
             $sql .= " AND [TABLE_NAME] LIKE '" . $this->escapeLikeString($this->DBPrefix) . "%' "
                 . sprintf($this->likeEscapeStr, $this->likeEscapeChar);
         }
@@ -368,7 +368,11 @@ protected function _fieldData(string $table): array
 
             $retVal[$i]->max_length = $query[$i]->CHARACTER_MAXIMUM_LENGTH > 0
                 ? $query[$i]->CHARACTER_MAXIMUM_LENGTH
-                : $query[$i]->NUMERIC_PRECISION;
+                : (
+                    $query[$i]->CHARACTER_MAXIMUM_LENGTH === -1
+                    ? 'max'
+                    : $query[$i]->NUMERIC_PRECISION
+                );
 
             $retVal[$i]->nullable = $query[$i]->IS_NULLABLE !== 'NO';
             $retVal[$i]->default  = $query[$i]->COLUMN_DEFAULT;
diff --git a/system/Database/SQLSRV/Forge.php b/system/Database/SQLSRV/Forge.php
index cae4eda2..df3d55c7 100644
--- a/system/Database/SQLSRV/Forge.php
+++ b/system/Database/SQLSRV/Forge.php
@@ -212,10 +212,10 @@ protected function _alterTable(string $alterType, string $table, $processedField
 
             $sql = <<<SQL
                 SELECT name
-                FROM SYS.DEFAULT_CONSTRAINTS
-                WHERE PARENT_OBJECT_ID = OBJECT_ID('{$fullTable}')
-                AND PARENT_COLUMN_ID IN (
-                SELECT column_id FROM sys.columns WHERE NAME IN ({$fields}) AND object_id = OBJECT_ID(N'{$fullTable}')
+                FROM sys.default_constraints
+                WHERE parent_object_id = OBJECT_ID('{$fullTable}')
+                AND parent_column_id IN (
+                SELECT column_id FROM sys.columns WHERE name IN ({$fields}) AND object_id = OBJECT_ID(N'{$fullTable}')
                 )
                 SQL;
 
@@ -263,7 +263,7 @@ protected function _alterTable(string $alterType, string $table, $processedField
                 $nullable = false;
             }
             $sqls[] = $sql . ' ALTER COLUMN ' . $this->db->escapeIdentifiers($field['name'])
-                . " {$field['type']}{$field['length']} " . ($nullable === true ? '' : 'NOT') . ' NULL';
+                . " {$field['type']}{$field['length']} " . ($nullable ? '' : 'NOT') . ' NULL';
 
             if (! empty($field['comment'])) {
                 $sqls[] = 'EXEC sys.sp_addextendedproperty '
@@ -397,6 +397,11 @@ protected function _attributeType(array &$attributes)
                 $attributes['TYPE'] = 'BIT';
                 break;
 
+            case 'BLOB':
+                $attributes['TYPE'] = 'VARBINARY';
+                $attributes['CONSTRAINT'] ??= 'MAX';
+                break;
+
             default:
                 break;
         }
diff --git a/system/Database/SQLSRV/PreparedQuery.php b/system/Database/SQLSRV/PreparedQuery.php
index f3a4a14c..42555592 100644
--- a/system/Database/SQLSRV/PreparedQuery.php
+++ b/system/Database/SQLSRV/PreparedQuery.php
@@ -59,7 +59,7 @@ public function _prepare(string $sql, array $options = []): PreparedQuery
         // Prepare parameters for the query
         $queryString = $this->getQueryString();
 
-        $parameters = $this->parameterize($queryString);
+        $parameters = $this->parameterize($queryString, $options);
 
         // Prepare the query
         $this->statement = sqlsrv_prepare($this->db->connID, $sql, $parameters);
@@ -120,8 +120,10 @@ protected function _close(): bool
 
     /**
      * Handle parameters.
+     *
+     * @param array<int, mixed> $options
      */
-    protected function parameterize(string $queryString): array
+    protected function parameterize(string $queryString, array $options): array
     {
         $numberOfVariables = substr_count($queryString, '?');
 
@@ -129,7 +131,11 @@ protected function parameterize(string $queryString): array
 
         for ($c = 0; $c < $numberOfVariables; $c++) {
             $this->parameters[$c] = null;
-            $params[]             = &$this->parameters[$c];
+            if (isset($options[$c])) {
+                $params[] = [&$this->parameters[$c], SQLSRV_PARAM_IN, $options[$c]];
+            } else {
+                $params[] = &$this->parameters[$c];
+            }
         }
 
         return $params;
diff --git a/system/Database/SQLite3/Builder.php b/system/Database/SQLite3/Builder.php
index a59270bb..15fc2529 100644
--- a/system/Database/SQLite3/Builder.php
+++ b/system/Database/SQLite3/Builder.php
@@ -145,7 +145,7 @@ protected function _upsertBatch(string $table, array $keys, array $values): stri
             if (empty($constraints)) {
                 $fieldNames = array_map(static fn ($columnName) => trim($columnName, '`'), $keys);
 
-                $allIndexes = array_filter($this->db->getIndexData($table), static function ($index) use ($fieldNames) {
+                $allIndexes = array_filter($this->db->getIndexData($table), static function ($index) use ($fieldNames): bool {
                     $hasAllFields = count(array_intersect($index->fields, $fieldNames)) === count($index->fields);
 
                     return ($index->type === 'PRIMARY' || $index->type === 'UNIQUE') && $hasAllFields;
diff --git a/system/Database/SQLite3/Connection.php b/system/Database/SQLite3/Connection.php
index 9945d41d..577e4b24 100644
--- a/system/Database/SQLite3/Connection.php
+++ b/system/Database/SQLite3/Connection.php
@@ -89,7 +89,7 @@ public function connect(bool $persistent = false)
                 $this->database = WRITEPATH . $this->database;
             }
 
-            $sqlite = (! $this->password)
+            $sqlite = (! isset($this->password) || $this->password !== '')
                 ? new SQLite3($this->database)
                 : new SQLite3($this->database, SQLITE3_OPEN_READWRITE | SQLITE3_OPEN_CREATE, $this->password);
 
@@ -194,7 +194,7 @@ protected function _escapeString(string $str): string
      */
     protected function _listTables(bool $prefixLimit = false, ?string $tableName = null): string
     {
-        if ($tableName !== null) {
+        if ((string) $tableName !== '') {
             return 'SELECT "NAME" FROM "SQLITE_MASTER" WHERE "TYPE" = \'table\''
                    . ' AND "NAME" NOT LIKE \'sqlite!_%\' ESCAPE \'!\''
                    . ' AND "NAME" LIKE ' . $this->escape($tableName);
@@ -202,7 +202,7 @@ protected function _listTables(bool $prefixLimit = false, ?string $tableName = n
 
         return 'SELECT "NAME" FROM "SQLITE_MASTER" WHERE "TYPE" = \'table\''
                . ' AND "NAME" NOT LIKE \'sqlite!_%\' ESCAPE \'!\''
-               . (($prefixLimit !== false && $this->DBPrefix !== '')
+               . (($prefixLimit && $this->DBPrefix !== '')
                     ? ' AND "NAME" LIKE \'' . $this->escapeLikeString($this->DBPrefix) . '%\' ' . sprintf($this->likeEscapeStr, $this->likeEscapeChar)
                     : '');
     }
@@ -359,7 +359,7 @@ protected function _indexData(string $table): array
      */
     protected function _foreignKeyData(string $table): array
     {
-        if ($this->supportsForeignKeys() !== true) {
+        if (! $this->supportsForeignKeys()) {
             return [];
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Database/SQLite3/PreparedQuery.php b/system/Database/SQLite3/PreparedQuery.php
index 21dc4c2f..0e15b5d6 100644
--- a/system/Database/SQLite3/PreparedQuery.php
+++ b/system/Database/SQLite3/PreparedQuery.php
@@ -75,6 +75,8 @@ public function _execute(array $data): bool
                 $bindType = SQLITE3_INTEGER;
             } elseif (is_float($item)) {
                 $bindType = SQLITE3_FLOAT;
+            } elseif (is_string($item) && $this->isBinary($item)) {
+                $bindType = SQLITE3_BLOB;
             } else {
                 $bindType = SQLITE3_TEXT;
             }
diff --git a/system/Database/Seeder.php b/system/Database/Seeder.php
index be7cfcdf..c70a34b4 100644
--- a/system/Database/Seeder.php
+++ b/system/Database/Seeder.php
@@ -105,7 +105,7 @@ public function __construct(Database $config, ?BaseConnection $db = null)
      */
     public static function faker(): ?Generator
     {
-        if (self::$faker === null && class_exists(Factory::class)) {
+        if (! self::$faker instanceof Generator && class_exists(Factory::class)) {
             self::$faker = Factory::create();
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Debug/Exceptions.php b/system/Debug/Exceptions.php
index e5f7ecb0..aa353732 100644
--- a/system/Debug/Exceptions.php
+++ b/system/Debug/Exceptions.php
@@ -22,7 +22,6 @@
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\ResponseInterface;
 use Config\Exceptions as ExceptionsConfig;
 use Config\Paths;
-use Config\Services;
 use ErrorException;
 use Psr\Log\LogLevel;
 use Throwable;
@@ -126,7 +125,7 @@ public function exceptionHandler(Throwable $exception)
 
         [$statusCode, $exitCode] = $this->determineCodes($exception);
 
-        $this->request = Services::request();
+        $this->request = service('request');
 
         if ($this->config->log === true && ! in_array($statusCode, $this->config->ignoreCodes, true)) {
             $uri       = $this->request->getPath() === '' ? '/' : $this->request->getPath();
@@ -155,7 +154,7 @@ public function exceptionHandler(Throwable $exception)
             }
         }
 
-        $this->response = Services::response();
+        $this->response = service('response');
 
         if (method_exists($this->config, 'handler')) {
             // Use new ExceptionHandler
diff --git a/system/Debug/Toolbar.php b/system/Debug/Toolbar.php
index 9f20f987..b939e208 100644
--- a/system/Debug/Toolbar.php
+++ b/system/Debug/Toolbar.php
@@ -25,7 +25,6 @@
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\RequestInterface;
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\ResponseInterface;
 use CodeIgniter\I18n\Time;
-use Config\Services;
 use Config\Toolbar as ToolbarConfig;
 use Kint\Kint;
 
@@ -386,7 +385,7 @@ public function prepare(?RequestInterface $request = null, ?ResponseInterface $r
                 return;
             }
 
-            $toolbar = Services::toolbar(config(ToolbarConfig::class));
+            $toolbar = service('toolbar', config(ToolbarConfig::class));
             $stats   = $app->getPerformanceStats();
             $data    = $toolbar->run(
                 $stats['startTime'],
@@ -529,7 +528,7 @@ protected function format(string $data, string $format = 'html'): string
             case 'html':
                 $data['styles'] = [];
                 extract($data);
-                $parser = Services::parser($this->config->viewsPath, null, false);
+                $parser = service('parser', $this->config->viewsPath, null, false);
                 ob_start();
                 include $this->config->viewsPath . 'toolbar.tpl.php';
                 $output = ob_get_clean();
diff --git a/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/Database.php b/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/Database.php
index ee9f829b..1a923a35 100644
--- a/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/Database.php
+++ b/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/Database.php
@@ -148,7 +148,7 @@ protected function formatTimelineData(): array
     public function display(): array
     {
         $data            = [];
-        $data['queries'] = array_map(static function (array $query) {
+        $data['queries'] = array_map(static function (array $query): array {
             $isDuplicate = $query['duplicate'] === true;
 
             $firstNonSystemLine = '';
diff --git a/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/Logs.php b/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/Logs.php
index 2194526c..f36dfb1d 100644
--- a/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/Logs.php
+++ b/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/Logs.php
@@ -13,8 +13,6 @@
 
 namespace CodeIgniter\Debug\Toolbar\Collectors;
 
-use Config\Services;
-
 /**
  * Loags collector
  */
@@ -92,6 +90,6 @@ protected function collectLogs()
             return $this->data;
         }
 
-        return $this->data = Services::logger(true)->logCache ?? [];
+        return $this->data = service('logger', true)->logCache ?? [];
     }
 }
diff --git a/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/Routes.php b/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/Routes.php
index b6862dce..561399fb 100644
--- a/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/Routes.php
+++ b/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/Routes.php
@@ -14,7 +14,6 @@
 namespace CodeIgniter\Debug\Toolbar\Collectors;
 
 use CodeIgniter\Router\DefinedRouteCollector;
-use Config\Services;
 use ReflectionException;
 use ReflectionFunction;
 use ReflectionMethod;
@@ -74,8 +73,8 @@ class Routes extends BaseCollector
      */
     public function display(): array
     {
-        $rawRoutes = Services::routes(true);
-        $router    = Services::router(null, null, true);
+        $rawRoutes = service('routes', true);
+        $router    = service('router', null, null, true);
 
         // Get our parameters
         // Closure routes
@@ -153,7 +152,7 @@ public function display(): array
      */
     public function getBadgeValue(): int
     {
-        $rawRoutes = Services::routes(true);
+        $rawRoutes = service('routes', true);
 
         return count($rawRoutes->getRoutes());
     }
diff --git a/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/Timers.php b/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/Timers.php
index 163c9f57..d450cc5c 100644
--- a/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/Timers.php
+++ b/system/Debug/Toolbar/Collectors/Timers.php
@@ -13,8 +13,6 @@
 
 namespace CodeIgniter\Debug\Toolbar\Collectors;
 
-use Config\Services;
-
 /**
  * Timers collector
  */
@@ -52,7 +50,7 @@ protected function formatTimelineData(): array
     {
         $data = [];
 
-        $benchmark = Services::timer(true);
+        $benchmark = service('timer', true);
         $rows      = $benchmark->getTimers(6);
 
         foreach ($rows as $name => $info) {
diff --git a/system/Email/Email.php b/system/Email/Email.php
index b82779eb..5d420cc2 100644
--- a/system/Email/Email.php
+++ b/system/Email/Email.php
@@ -485,7 +485,7 @@ public function setFrom($from, $name = '', $returnPath = null)
         if ($this->validate) {
             $this->validateEmail($this->stringToArray($from));
 
-            if ($returnPath) {
+            if ($returnPath !== null) {
                 $this->validateEmail($this->stringToArray($returnPath));
             }
         }
@@ -495,7 +495,7 @@ public function setFrom($from, $name = '', $returnPath = null)
 
         if ($name !== '') {
             // only use Q encoding if there are characters that would require it
-            if (! preg_match('/[\200-\377]/', $name)) {
+            if (preg_match('/[\200-\377]/', $name) !== 1) {
                 $name = '"' . addcslashes($name, "\0..\37\177'\"\\") . '"';
             } else {
                 $name = $this->prepQEncoding($name);
@@ -532,7 +532,7 @@ public function setReplyTo($replyto, $name = '')
             $this->tmpArchive['replyName'] = $name;
 
             // only use Q encoding if there are characters that would require it
-            if (! preg_match('/[\200-\377]/', $name)) {
+            if (preg_match('/[\200-\377]/', $name) !== 1) {
                 $name = '"' . addcslashes($name, "\0..\37\177'\"\\") . '"';
             } else {
                 $name = $this->prepQEncoding($name);
@@ -1233,7 +1233,9 @@ protected function buildMessage()
                     $this->headerStr .= $hdr;
                 }
 
-                static::strlen($body) && $body .= $this->newline . $this->newline;
+                if (static::strlen($body) > 0) {
+                    $body .= $this->newline . $this->newline;
+                }
 
                 $body .= $this->getMimeMessage() . $this->newline . $this->newline
                     . '--' . $lastBoundary . $this->newline
diff --git a/system/Encryption/Handlers/OpenSSLHandler.php b/system/Encryption/Handlers/OpenSSLHandler.php
index f3b62c64..9745160b 100644
--- a/system/Encryption/Handlers/OpenSSLHandler.php
+++ b/system/Encryption/Handlers/OpenSSLHandler.php
@@ -82,7 +82,7 @@ class OpenSSLHandler extends BaseHandler
     public function encrypt($data, $params = null)
     {
         // Allow key override
-        if ($params) {
+        if ($params !== null) {
             $this->key = is_array($params) && isset($params['key']) ? $params['key'] : $params;
         }
 
@@ -118,7 +118,7 @@ public function encrypt($data, $params = null)
     public function decrypt($data, $params = null)
     {
         // Allow key override
-        if ($params) {
+        if ($params !== null) {
             $this->key = is_array($params) && isset($params['key']) ? $params['key'] : $params;
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Encryption/Handlers/SodiumHandler.php b/system/Encryption/Handlers/SodiumHandler.php
index b6c74da7..c74f2a5f 100644
--- a/system/Encryption/Handlers/SodiumHandler.php
+++ b/system/Encryption/Handlers/SodiumHandler.php
@@ -26,7 +26,7 @@ class SodiumHandler extends BaseHandler
     /**
      * Starter key
      *
-     * @var string
+     * @var string|null Null is used for buffer cleanup.
      */
     protected $key = '';
 
diff --git a/system/Events/Events.php b/system/Events/Events.php
index a06bd790..ad8efed6 100644
--- a/system/Events/Events.php
+++ b/system/Events/Events.php
@@ -84,7 +84,7 @@ public static function initialize()
             $files = service('locator')->search('Config/Events.php');
         }
 
-        $files = array_filter(array_map(static function (string $file) {
+        $files = array_filter(array_map(static function (string $file): false|string {
             if (is_file($file)) {
                 return realpath($file) ?: $file;
             }
diff --git a/system/Exceptions/DownloadException.php b/system/Exceptions/DownloadException.php
index df78127d..8ed2ba48 100644
--- a/system/Exceptions/DownloadException.php
+++ b/system/Exceptions/DownloadException.php
@@ -47,6 +47,8 @@ public static function forNotFoundDownloadSource()
     }
 
     /**
+     * @deprecated Since v4.5.6
+     *
      * @return static
      */
     public static function forCannotSetCache()
diff --git a/system/Exceptions/PageNotFoundException.php b/system/Exceptions/PageNotFoundException.php
index b1af079e..1a3b27a7 100644
--- a/system/Exceptions/PageNotFoundException.php
+++ b/system/Exceptions/PageNotFoundException.php
@@ -13,7 +13,6 @@
 
 namespace CodeIgniter\Exceptions;
 
-use Config\Services;
 use OutOfBoundsException;
 
 class PageNotFoundException extends OutOfBoundsException implements ExceptionInterface, HTTPExceptionInterface
@@ -78,7 +77,7 @@ public static function forLocaleNotSupported(string $locale)
      */
     private static function lang(string $line, array $args = []): string
     {
-        $lang = Services::language(null, false);
+        $lang = service('language', null, false);
 
         return $lang->getLine($line, $args);
     }
diff --git a/system/Filters/Filters.php b/system/Filters/Filters.php
index 1255e0c4..fd252fe1 100644
--- a/system/Filters/Filters.php
+++ b/system/Filters/Filters.php
@@ -557,7 +557,7 @@ public function enableFilters(array $names, string $when = 'before')
      */
     public function getArguments(?string $key = null)
     {
-        return $key === null ? $this->arguments : $this->arguments[$key];
+        return ((string) $key === '') ? $this->arguments : $this->arguments[$key];
     }
 
     // --------------------------------------------------------------------
@@ -674,7 +674,7 @@ protected function processMethods()
      */
     protected function processFilters(?string $uri = null)
     {
-        if (! isset($this->config->filters) || ! $this->config->filters) {
+        if (! isset($this->config->filters) || $this->config->filters === []) {
             return;
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Filters/Honeypot.php b/system/Filters/Honeypot.php
index c2fb98c6..cdff293a 100644
--- a/system/Filters/Honeypot.php
+++ b/system/Filters/Honeypot.php
@@ -17,7 +17,6 @@
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\IncomingRequest;
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\RequestInterface;
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\ResponseInterface;
-use Config\Services;
 
 /**
  * Honeypot filter
@@ -40,7 +39,7 @@ public function before(RequestInterface $request, $arguments = null)
             return;
         }
 
-        if (Services::honeypot()->hasContent($request)) {
+        if (service('honeypot')->hasContent($request)) {
             throw HoneypotException::isBot();
         }
     }
diff --git a/system/HTTP/CLIRequest.php b/system/HTTP/CLIRequest.php
index 0b2c5737..fbc5165e 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/CLIRequest.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/CLIRequest.php
@@ -95,9 +95,7 @@ public function __construct(App $config)
      */
     public function getPath(): string
     {
-        $path = implode('/', $this->segments);
-
-        return ($path === '') ? '' : $path;
+        return implode('/', $this->segments);
     }
 
     /**
diff --git a/system/HTTP/CURLRequest.php b/system/HTTP/CURLRequest.php
index 9da231c1..90157e4e 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/CURLRequest.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/CURLRequest.php
@@ -389,7 +389,7 @@ public function send(string $method, string $url)
             $output = substr($output, strpos($output, $breakString) + 4);
         }
 
-        if (str_starts_with($output, 'HTTP/1.1 200 Connection established')) {
+        if (preg_match('/HTTP\/\d\.\d 200 Connection established/i', $output)) {
             $output = substr($output, strpos($output, $breakString) + 4);
         }
 
diff --git a/system/HTTP/ContentSecurityPolicy.php b/system/HTTP/ContentSecurityPolicy.php
index 7582bc46..a6a2b26a 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/ContentSecurityPolicy.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/ContentSecurityPolicy.php
@@ -356,9 +356,9 @@ public function reportOnly(bool $value = true)
     }
 
     /**
-     * Adds a new base_uri value. Can be either a URI class or a simple string.
+     * Adds a new baseURI value. Can be either a URI class or a simple string.
      *
-     * base_uri restricts the URLs that can appear in a page's <base> element.
+     * baseURI restricts the URLs that can appear in a page's <base> element.
      *
      * @see http://www.w3.org/TR/CSP/#directive-base-uri
      *
@@ -713,7 +713,7 @@ protected function generateNonces(ResponseInterface $response)
         $pattern = '/(' . preg_quote($this->styleNonceTag, '/')
             . '|' . preg_quote($this->scriptNonceTag, '/') . ')/';
 
-        $body = preg_replace_callback($pattern, function ($match) {
+        $body = preg_replace_callback($pattern, function ($match): string {
             $nonce = $match[0] === $this->styleNonceTag ? $this->getStyleNonce() : $this->getScriptNonce();
 
             return "nonce=\"{$nonce}\"";
diff --git a/system/HTTP/DownloadResponse.php b/system/HTTP/DownloadResponse.php
index 6b293fbc..a0da2e8c 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/DownloadResponse.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/DownloadResponse.php
@@ -85,7 +85,7 @@ public function __construct(string $filename, bool $setMime)
      */
     public function setBinary(string $binary)
     {
-        if ($this->file !== null) {
+        if ($this->file instanceof File) {
             throw DownloadException::forCannotSetBinary();
         }
 
@@ -142,7 +142,7 @@ private function setContentTypeByMimeType(): void
         $mime    = null;
         $charset = '';
 
-        if ($this->setMime === true && ($lastDotPosition = strrpos($this->filename, '.')) !== false) {
+        if ($this->setMime && ($lastDotPosition = strrpos($this->filename, '.')) !== false) {
             $mime    = Mimes::guessTypeFromExtension(substr($this->filename, $lastDotPosition + 1));
             $charset = $this->charset;
         }
@@ -242,16 +242,6 @@ public function noCache(): self
         return $this;
     }
 
-    /**
-     * Disables cache configuration.
-     *
-     * @throws DownloadException
-     */
-    public function setCache(array $options = [])
-    {
-        throw DownloadException::forCannotSetCache();
-    }
-
     /**
      * {@inheritDoc}
      *
@@ -290,10 +280,8 @@ public function buildHeaders()
             $this->setHeader('Content-Disposition', $this->getContentDisposition());
         }
 
-        $this->setHeader('Expires-Disposition', '0');
         $this->setHeader('Content-Transfer-Encoding', 'binary');
         $this->setHeader('Content-Length', (string) $this->getContentLength());
-        $this->noCache();
     }
 
     /**
@@ -309,7 +297,7 @@ public function sendBody()
             return $this->sendBodyByBinary();
         }
 
-        if ($this->file !== null) {
+        if ($this->file instanceof File) {
             return $this->sendBodyByFilePath();
         }
 
diff --git a/system/HTTP/Exceptions/RedirectException.php b/system/HTTP/Exceptions/RedirectException.php
index 5f2dcd05..3047bf96 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/Exceptions/RedirectException.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/Exceptions/RedirectException.php
@@ -69,7 +69,7 @@ public function __construct($message = '', int $code = 0, ?Throwable $previous =
 
     public function getResponse(): ResponseInterface
     {
-        if (null === $this->response) {
+        if (! $this->response instanceof ResponseInterface) {
             $this->response = service('response')
                 ->redirect(base_url($this->getMessage()), 'auto', $this->getCode());
         }
diff --git a/system/HTTP/Files/FileCollection.php b/system/HTTP/Files/FileCollection.php
index 079d5e73..add2c3c0 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/Files/FileCollection.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/Files/FileCollection.php
@@ -253,7 +253,7 @@ protected function getValueDotNotationSyntax(array $index, array $value)
     {
         $currentIndex = array_shift($index);
 
-        if (isset($currentIndex) && is_array($index) && $index && is_array($value[$currentIndex]) && $value[$currentIndex]) {
+        if (isset($currentIndex) && is_array($index) && $index !== [] && array_key_exists($currentIndex, $value) && is_array($value[$currentIndex])) {
             return $this->getValueDotNotationSyntax($index, $value[$currentIndex]);
         }
 
diff --git a/system/HTTP/Files/UploadedFile.php b/system/HTTP/Files/UploadedFile.php
index 78643aa7..c17a9e5a 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/Files/UploadedFile.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/Files/UploadedFile.php
@@ -302,7 +302,9 @@ public function getTempName(): string
      */
     public function getExtension(): string
     {
-        return $this->guessExtension() ?: $this->getClientExtension();
+        $guessExtension = $this->guessExtension();
+
+        return $guessExtension !== '' ? $guessExtension : $this->getClientExtension();
     }
 
     /**
diff --git a/system/HTTP/Negotiate.php b/system/HTTP/Negotiate.php
index 67a03a38..33938c8f 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/Negotiate.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/Negotiate.php
@@ -39,7 +39,7 @@ class Negotiate
      */
     public function __construct(?RequestInterface $request = null)
     {
-        if ($request !== null) {
+        if ($request instanceof RequestInterface) {
             assert($request instanceof IncomingRequest);
 
             $this->request = $request;
@@ -233,7 +233,7 @@ public function parseHeader(string $header): array
         }
 
         // Sort to get the highest results first
-        usort($results, static function ($a, $b) {
+        usort($results, static function ($a, $b): int {
             if ($a['q'] === $b['q']) {
                 $aAst = substr_count($a['value'], '*');
                 $bAst = substr_count($b['value'], '*');
diff --git a/system/HTTP/OutgoingRequest.php b/system/HTTP/OutgoingRequest.php
index 27e473a5..e62f0724 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/OutgoingRequest.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/OutgoingRequest.php
@@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ private function getHostFromUri(URI $uri): string
     {
         $host = $uri->getHost();
 
-        return $host . ($uri->getPort() ? ':' . $uri->getPort() : '');
+        return $host . ($uri->getPort() > 0 ? ':' . $uri->getPort() : '');
     }
 
     /**
diff --git a/system/HTTP/RedirectResponse.php b/system/HTTP/RedirectResponse.php
index 95bfadcd..206b1de0 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/RedirectResponse.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/RedirectResponse.php
@@ -15,7 +15,6 @@
 
 use CodeIgniter\Cookie\CookieStore;
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\Exceptions\HTTPException;
-use Config\Services;
 
 /**
  * Handle a redirect response
@@ -116,9 +115,8 @@ private function withErrors(): self
     {
         $validation = service('validation');
 
-        if ($validation->getErrors()) {
-            $session = service('session');
-            $session->setFlashdata('_ci_validation_errors', $validation->getErrors());
+        if ($validation->getErrors() !== []) {
+            service('session')->setFlashdata('_ci_validation_errors', $validation->getErrors());
         }
 
         return $this;
@@ -148,7 +146,7 @@ public function with(string $key, $message)
      */
     public function withCookies()
     {
-        $this->cookieStore = new CookieStore(Services::response()->getCookies());
+        $this->cookieStore = new CookieStore(service('response')->getCookies());
 
         return $this;
     }
@@ -163,7 +161,7 @@ public function withCookies()
      */
     public function withHeaders()
     {
-        foreach (Services::response()->headers() as $name => $value) {
+        foreach (service('response')->headers() as $name => $value) {
             if ($value instanceof Header) {
                 $this->setHeader($name, $value->getValue());
             } else {
diff --git a/system/HTTP/RequestTrait.php b/system/HTTP/RequestTrait.php
index 43a4f23a..dfa4b663 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/RequestTrait.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/RequestTrait.php
@@ -59,7 +59,7 @@ trait RequestTrait
      */
     public function getIPAddress(): string
     {
-        if ($this->ipAddress) {
+        if ($this->ipAddress !== '') {
             return $this->ipAddress;
         }
 
@@ -249,7 +249,7 @@ public function setGlobal(string $name, $value)
      *
      * @param         string                                   $name   Supergrlobal name (lowercase)
      * @phpstan-param 'get'|'post'|'request'|'cookie'|'server' $name
-     * @param         array|string|null                        $index
+     * @param         array|int|string|null                    $index
      * @param         int|null                                 $filter Filter constant
      * @param         array|int|null                           $flags  Options
      *
@@ -290,7 +290,7 @@ public function fetchGlobal(string $name, $index = null, ?int $filter = null, $f
         }
 
         // Does the index contain array notation?
-        if (($count = preg_match_all('/(?:^[^\[]+)|\[[^]]*\]/', $index, $matches)) > 1) {
+        if (is_string($index) && ($count = preg_match_all('/(?:^[^\[]+)|\[[^]]*\]/', $index, $matches)) > 1) {
             $value = $this->globals[$name];
 
             for ($i = 0; $i < $count; $i++) {
diff --git a/system/HTTP/Response.php b/system/HTTP/Response.php
index a19fbb5f..ac853c3d 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/Response.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/Response.php
@@ -18,7 +18,6 @@
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\Exceptions\HTTPException;
 use Config\App;
 use Config\Cookie as CookieConfig;
-use Config\Services;
 
 /**
  * Representation of an outgoing, server-side response.
@@ -158,7 +157,7 @@ public function __construct($config) // @phpstan-ignore-line
         $this->noCache();
 
         // We need CSP object even if not enabled to avoid calls to non existing methods
-        $this->CSP = Services::csp();
+        $this->CSP = service('csp');
 
         $this->cookieStore = new CookieStore([]);
 
diff --git a/system/HTTP/ResponseInterface.php b/system/HTTP/ResponseInterface.php
index 827eea44..382a2847 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/ResponseInterface.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/ResponseInterface.php
@@ -210,7 +210,7 @@ public function setContentType(string $mime, string $charset = 'UTF-8');
     /**
      * Converts the $body into JSON and sets the Content Type header.
      *
-     * @param array|string $body
+     * @param array|object|string $body
      *
      * @return $this
      */
diff --git a/system/HTTP/ResponseTrait.php b/system/HTTP/ResponseTrait.php
index 45f07d18..eaf60f2b 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/ResponseTrait.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/ResponseTrait.php
@@ -123,18 +123,21 @@ public function setDate(DateTime $date)
      */
     public function setLink(PagerInterface $pager)
     {
-        $links = '';
+        $links    = '';
+        $previous = $pager->getPreviousPageURI();
 
-        if ($previous = $pager->getPreviousPageURI()) {
+        if (is_string($previous) && $previous !== '') {
             $links .= '<' . $pager->getPageURI($pager->getFirstPage()) . '>; rel="first",';
             $links .= '<' . $previous . '>; rel="prev"';
         }
 
-        if (($next = $pager->getNextPageURI()) && $previous) {
+        $next = $pager->getNextPageURI();
+
+        if (is_string($next) && $next !== '' && is_string($previous) && $previous !== '') {
             $links .= ',';
         }
 
-        if ($next) {
+        if (is_string($next) && $next !== '') {
             $links .= '<' . $next . '>; rel="next",';
             $links .= '<' . $pager->getPageURI($pager->getLastPage()) . '>; rel="last"';
         }
@@ -566,7 +569,7 @@ public function getCookieStore()
      */
     public function hasCookie(string $name, ?string $value = null, string $prefix = ''): bool
     {
-        $prefix = $prefix ?: Cookie::setDefaults()['prefix']; // to retain BC
+        $prefix = $prefix !== '' ? $prefix : Cookie::setDefaults()['prefix']; // to retain BC
 
         return $this->cookieStore->has($name, $prefix, $value);
     }
@@ -586,7 +589,7 @@ public function getCookie(?string $name = null, string $prefix = '')
         }
 
         try {
-            $prefix = $prefix ?: Cookie::setDefaults()['prefix']; // to retain BC
+            $prefix = $prefix !== '' ? $prefix : Cookie::setDefaults()['prefix']; // to retain BC
 
             return $this->cookieStore->get($name, $prefix);
         } catch (CookieException $e) {
@@ -607,7 +610,7 @@ public function deleteCookie(string $name = '', string $domain = '', string $pat
             return $this;
         }
 
-        $prefix = $prefix ?: Cookie::setDefaults()['prefix']; // to retain BC
+        $prefix = $prefix !== '' ? $prefix : Cookie::setDefaults()['prefix']; // to retain BC
 
         $prefixed = $prefix . $name;
         $store    = $this->cookieStore;
diff --git a/system/HTTP/SiteURI.php b/system/HTTP/SiteURI.php
index def61b65..2be70a77 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/SiteURI.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/SiteURI.php
@@ -41,7 +41,7 @@ class SiteURI extends URI
     /**
      * The Index File.
      */
-    private string $indexPage;
+    private readonly string $indexPage;
 
     /**
      * List of URI segments in baseURL and indexPage.
@@ -421,7 +421,7 @@ public function siteUrl($relativePath = '', ?string $scheme = null, ?App $config
         $relativePath = $this->stringifyRelativePath($relativePath);
 
         // Check current host.
-        $host = $config === null ? $this->getHost() : null;
+        $host = $config instanceof App ? null : $this->getHost();
 
         $config ??= config(App::class);
 
diff --git a/system/HTTP/URI.php b/system/HTTP/URI.php
index efa99cf7..d0d23a3d 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/URI.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/URI.php
@@ -1177,7 +1177,8 @@ protected function parseStr(string $query): array
         parse_str($params, $result);
 
         foreach ($result as $key => $value) {
-            $return[hex2bin($key)] = $value;
+            // Array key might be int
+            $return[hex2bin((string) $key)] = $value;
         }
 
         return $return;
diff --git a/system/HTTP/UserAgent.php b/system/HTTP/UserAgent.php
index 6a510477..ec4d1743 100644
--- a/system/HTTP/UserAgent.php
+++ b/system/HTTP/UserAgent.php
@@ -125,7 +125,7 @@ public function isBrowser(?string $key = null): bool
         }
 
         // No need to be specific, it's a browser
-        if ($key === null) {
+        if ((string) $key === '') {
             return true;
         }
 
@@ -143,7 +143,7 @@ public function isRobot(?string $key = null): bool
         }
 
         // No need to be specific, it's a robot
-        if ($key === null) {
+        if ((string) $key === '') {
             return true;
         }
 
@@ -161,7 +161,7 @@ public function isMobile(?string $key = null): bool
         }
 
         // No need to be specific, it's a mobile
-        if ($key === null) {
+        if ((string) $key === '') {
             return true;
         }
 
@@ -289,7 +289,7 @@ protected function compileData()
      */
     protected function setPlatform(): bool
     {
-        if (is_array($this->config->platforms) && $this->config->platforms) {
+        if (is_array($this->config->platforms) && $this->config->platforms !== []) {
             foreach ($this->config->platforms as $key => $val) {
                 if (preg_match('|' . preg_quote($key, '|') . '|i', $this->agent)) {
                     $this->platform = $val;
@@ -309,7 +309,7 @@ protected function setPlatform(): bool
      */
     protected function setBrowser(): bool
     {
-        if (is_array($this->config->browsers) && $this->config->browsers) {
+        if (is_array($this->config->browsers) && $this->config->browsers !== []) {
             foreach ($this->config->browsers as $key => $val) {
                 if (preg_match('|' . $key . '.*?([0-9\.]+)|i', $this->agent, $match)) {
                     $this->isBrowser = true;
@@ -330,7 +330,7 @@ protected function setBrowser(): bool
      */
     protected function setRobot(): bool
     {
-        if (is_array($this->config->robots) && $this->config->robots) {
+        if (is_array($this->config->robots) && $this->config->robots !== []) {
             foreach ($this->config->robots as $key => $val) {
                 if (preg_match('|' . preg_quote($key, '|') . '|i', $this->agent)) {
                     $this->isRobot = true;
@@ -350,7 +350,7 @@ protected function setRobot(): bool
      */
     protected function setMobile(): bool
     {
-        if (is_array($this->config->mobiles) && $this->config->mobiles) {
+        if (is_array($this->config->mobiles) && $this->config->mobiles !== []) {
             foreach ($this->config->mobiles as $key => $val) {
                 if (false !== (stripos($this->agent, $key))) {
                     $this->isMobile = true;
diff --git a/system/Helpers/Array/ArrayHelper.php b/system/Helpers/Array/ArrayHelper.php
index 76b8e8ae..4bbd3442 100644
--- a/system/Helpers/Array/ArrayHelper.php
+++ b/system/Helpers/Array/ArrayHelper.php
@@ -307,7 +307,7 @@ public static function recursiveCount(array $array, int $counter = 0): int
      */
     public static function sortValuesByNatural(array &$array, $sortByIndex = null): bool
     {
-        return usort($array, static function ($currentValue, $nextValue) use ($sortByIndex) {
+        return usort($array, static function ($currentValue, $nextValue) use ($sortByIndex): int {
             if ($sortByIndex !== null) {
                 return strnatcmp((string) $currentValue[$sortByIndex], (string) $nextValue[$sortByIndex]);
             }
diff --git a/system/Helpers/filesystem_helper.php b/system/Helpers/filesystem_helper.php
index 2b86654c..d5f2d974 100644
--- a/system/Helpers/filesystem_helper.php
+++ b/system/Helpers/filesystem_helper.php
@@ -166,7 +166,7 @@ function delete_files(string $path, bool $delDir = false, bool $htdocs = false,
                     continue;
                 }
 
-                if (! $htdocs || ! preg_match('/^(\.htaccess|index\.(html|htm|php)|web\.config)$/i', $filename)) {
+                if (! $htdocs || preg_match('/^(\.htaccess|index\.(html|htm|php)|web\.config)$/i', $filename) !== 1) {
                     $isDir = $object->isDir();
                     if ($isDir && $delDir) {
                         rmdir($object->getPathname());
@@ -260,13 +260,13 @@ function get_dir_file_info(string $sourceDir, bool $topLevelOnly = true, bool $r
         try {
             $fp = opendir($sourceDir);
 
-            // reset the array and make sure $source_dir has a trailing slash on the initial call
+            // reset the array and make sure $sourceDir has a trailing slash on the initial call
             if ($recursion === false) {
                 $fileData  = [];
                 $sourceDir = rtrim(realpath($sourceDir), DIRECTORY_SEPARATOR) . DIRECTORY_SEPARATOR;
             }
 
-            // Used to be foreach (scandir($source_dir, 1) as $file), but scandir() is simply not as fast
+            // Used to be foreach (scandir($sourceDir, 1) as $file), but scandir() is simply not as fast
             while (false !== ($file = readdir($fp))) {
                 if (is_dir($sourceDir . $file) && $file[0] !== '.' && $topLevelOnly === false) {
                     get_dir_file_info($sourceDir . $file . DIRECTORY_SEPARATOR, $topLevelOnly, true);
diff --git a/system/Helpers/form_helper.php b/system/Helpers/form_helper.php
index 2e5b9f7c..7e113888 100644
--- a/system/Helpers/form_helper.php
+++ b/system/Helpers/form_helper.php
@@ -62,7 +62,7 @@ function form_open(string $action = '', $attributes = [], array $hidden = []): s
         // Add CSRF field if enabled, but leave it out for GET requests and requests to external websites
         $before = service('filters')->getFilters()['before'];
 
-        if ((in_array('csrf', $before, true) || array_key_exists('csrf', $before)) && str_contains($action, base_url()) && ! stripos($form, 'method="get"')) {
+        if ((in_array('csrf', $before, true) || array_key_exists('csrf', $before)) && str_contains($action, base_url()) && stripos($form, 'method="get"') === false) {
             $form .= csrf_field($csrfId ?? null);
         }
 
@@ -582,7 +582,7 @@ function set_select(string $field, string $value = '', bool $default = false): s
         }
 
         if ($input === null) {
-            return ($default === true) ? ' selected="selected"' : '';
+            return $default ? ' selected="selected"' : '';
         }
 
         if (is_array($input)) {
@@ -636,7 +636,7 @@ function set_checkbox(string $field, string $value = '', bool $default = false):
             return ($input === $value) ? ' checked="checked"' : '';
         }
 
-        return ($default === true) ? ' checked="checked"' : '';
+        return $default ? ' checked="checked"' : '';
     }
 }
 
@@ -673,7 +673,7 @@ function set_radio(string $field, string $value = '', bool $default = false): st
             return ((string) $input === $value) ? ' checked="checked"' : '';
         }
 
-        return ($default === true) ? ' checked="checked"' : '';
+        return $default ? ' checked="checked"' : '';
     }
 }
 
@@ -788,7 +788,7 @@ function parse_form_attributes($attributes, array $default): string
             if (! is_bool($val)) {
                 if ($key === 'value') {
                     $val = esc($val);
-                } elseif ($key === 'name' && ! strlen($default['name'])) {
+                } elseif ($key === 'name' && $default['name'] === '') {
                     continue;
                 }
                 $att .= $key . '="' . $val . '"' . ($key === array_key_last($default) ? '' : ' ');
diff --git a/system/Helpers/html_helper.php b/system/Helpers/html_helper.php
index b9e5e5c8..3eb55a6d 100644
--- a/system/Helpers/html_helper.php
+++ b/system/Helpers/html_helper.php
@@ -112,8 +112,8 @@ function img($src = '', bool $indexPage = false, $attributes = ''): string
         $img = '<img';
 
         // Check for a relative URI
-        if (! preg_match('#^([a-z]+:)?//#i', $src['src']) && ! str_starts_with($src['src'], 'data:')) {
-            if ($indexPage === true) {
+        if (preg_match('#^([a-z]+:)?//#i', $src['src']) !== 1 && ! str_starts_with($src['src'], 'data:')) {
+            if ($indexPage) {
                 $img .= ' src="' . site_url($src['src']) . '"';
             } else {
                 $img .= ' src="' . slash_item('baseURL') . $src['src'] . '"';
@@ -206,8 +206,8 @@ function script_tag($src = '', bool $indexPage = false): string
         }
 
         foreach ($src as $k => $v) {
-            if ($k === 'src' && ! preg_match('#^([a-z]+:)?//#i', $v)) {
-                if ($indexPage === true) {
+            if ($k === 'src' && preg_match('#^([a-z]+:)?//#i', $v) !== 1) {
+                if ($indexPage) {
                     $script .= 'src="' . site_url($v) . '" ';
                 } else {
                     $script .= 'src="' . slash_item('baseURL') . $v . '" ';
@@ -252,7 +252,7 @@ function link_tag(
             $href      = $href['href'] ?? '';
         }
 
-        if (! preg_match('#^([a-z]+:)?//#i', $href)) {
+        if (preg_match('#^([a-z]+:)?//#i', $href) !== 1) {
             $attributes['href'] = $indexPage ? site_url($href) : slash_item('baseURL') . $href;
         } else {
             $attributes['href'] = $href;
@@ -302,7 +302,7 @@ function video($src, string $unsupportedMessage = '', string $attributes = '', a
 
         if (_has_protocol($src)) {
             $video .= ' src="' . $src . '"';
-        } elseif ($indexPage === true) {
+        } elseif ($indexPage) {
             $video .= ' src="' . site_url($src) . '"';
         } else {
             $video .= ' src="' . slash_item('baseURL') . $src . '"';
@@ -349,7 +349,7 @@ function audio($src, string $unsupportedMessage = '', string $attributes = '', a
 
         if (_has_protocol($src)) {
             $audio .= ' src="' . $src . '"';
-        } elseif ($indexPage === true) {
+        } elseif ($indexPage) {
             $audio .= ' src="' . site_url($src) . '"';
         } else {
             $audio .= ' src="' . slash_item('baseURL') . $src . '"';
@@ -422,7 +422,7 @@ function _media(string $name, array $types = [], string $unsupportedMessage = ''
     function source(string $src, string $type = 'unknown', string $attributes = '', bool $indexPage = false): string
     {
         if (! _has_protocol($src)) {
-            $src = $indexPage === true ? site_url($src) : slash_item('baseURL') . $src;
+            $src = $indexPage ? site_url($src) : slash_item('baseURL') . $src;
         }
 
         $source = '<source src="' . $src
@@ -474,7 +474,7 @@ function track(string $src, string $kind, string $srcLanguage, string $label): s
     function object(string $data, string $type = 'unknown', string $attributes = '', array $params = [], bool $indexPage = false): string
     {
         if (! _has_protocol($data)) {
-            $data = $indexPage === true ? site_url($data) : slash_item('baseURL') . $data;
+            $data = $indexPage ? site_url($data) : slash_item('baseURL') . $data;
         }
 
         $object = '<object data="' . $data . '" '
@@ -527,7 +527,7 @@ function param(string $name, string $value, string $type = 'ref', string $attrib
     function embed(string $src, string $type = 'unknown', string $attributes = '', bool $indexPage = false): string
     {
         if (! _has_protocol($src)) {
-            $src = $indexPage === true ? site_url($src) : slash_item('baseURL') . $src;
+            $src = $indexPage ? site_url($src) : slash_item('baseURL') . $src;
         }
 
         return '<embed src="' . $src
diff --git a/system/Helpers/text_helper.php b/system/Helpers/text_helper.php
index 3de10573..dcc21126 100644
--- a/system/Helpers/text_helper.php
+++ b/system/Helpers/text_helper.php
@@ -741,7 +741,7 @@ function excerpt(string $text, ?string $phrase = null, int $radius = 100, string
             $count = ++$count + strlen($s);
         }
 
-        $ellPre = $phrase ? $ellipsis : '';
+        $ellPre = $phrase !== null ? $ellipsis : '';
 
         return str_replace('  ', ' ', $ellPre . $prev . $phrase . $post . $ellipsis);
     }
diff --git a/system/Helpers/url_helper.php b/system/Helpers/url_helper.php
index d68fea2a..28bb2cf4 100644
--- a/system/Helpers/url_helper.php
+++ b/system/Helpers/url_helper.php
@@ -211,6 +211,8 @@ function anchor_popup($uri = '', string $title = '', $attributes = false, ?App $
             $windowName = '_blank';
         }
 
+        $atts = [];
+
         foreach (['width' => '800', 'height' => '600', 'scrollbars' => 'yes', 'menubar' => 'no', 'status' => 'yes', 'resizable' => 'yes', 'screenx' => '0', 'screeny' => '0'] as $key => $val) {
             $atts[$key] = $attributes[$key] ?? $val;
             unset($attributes[$key]);
@@ -351,7 +353,15 @@ function safe_mailto(string $email, string $title = '', $attributes = ''): strin
     function auto_link(string $str, string $type = 'both', bool $popup = false): string
     {
         // Find and replace any URLs.
-        if ($type !== 'email' && preg_match_all('#(\w*://|www\.)[a-z0-9]+(-+[a-z0-9]+)*(\.[a-z0-9]+(-+[a-z0-9]+)*)+(/([^\s()<>;]+\w)?/?)?#i', $str, $matches, PREG_OFFSET_CAPTURE | PREG_SET_ORDER)) {
+        if (
+            $type !== 'email'
+            && preg_match_all(
+                '#([a-z][a-z0-9+\-.]*://|www\.)[a-z0-9]+(-+[a-z0-9]+)*(\.[a-z0-9]+(-+[a-z0-9]+)*)+(/([^\s()<>;]+\w)?/?)?#i',
+                $str,
+                $matches,
+                PREG_OFFSET_CAPTURE | PREG_SET_ORDER
+            )
+        ) {
             // Set our target HTML if using popup links.
             $target = ($popup) ? ' target="_blank"' : '';
 
@@ -370,7 +380,15 @@ function auto_link(string $str, string $type = 'both', bool $popup = false): str
         }
 
         // Find and replace any emails.
-        if ($type !== 'url' && preg_match_all('#([\w\.\-\+]+@[a-z0-9\-]+\.[a-z0-9\-\.]+[^[:punct:]\s])#i', $str, $matches, PREG_OFFSET_CAPTURE)) {
+        if (
+            $type !== 'url'
+            && preg_match_all(
+                '#([\w\.\-\+]+@[a-z0-9\-]+\.[a-z0-9\-\.]+[^[:punct:]\s])#i',
+                $str,
+                $matches,
+                PREG_OFFSET_CAPTURE
+            )
+        ) {
             foreach (array_reverse($matches[0]) as $match) {
                 if (filter_var($match[0], FILTER_VALIDATE_EMAIL) !== false) {
                     $str = substr_replace($str, safe_mailto($match[0]), $match[1], strlen($match[0]));
@@ -440,7 +458,7 @@ function url_title(string $str, string $separator = '-', bool $lowercase = false
             $str = preg_replace('#' . $key . '#iu', $val, $str);
         }
 
-        if ($lowercase === true) {
+        if ($lowercase) {
             $str = mb_strtolower($str);
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Helpers/xml_helper.php b/system/Helpers/xml_helper.php
index 13f9c0df..70c9f409 100644
--- a/system/Helpers/xml_helper.php
+++ b/system/Helpers/xml_helper.php
@@ -25,7 +25,7 @@ function xml_convert(string $str, bool $protectAll = false): string
         // ampersands won't get messed up
         $str = preg_replace('/&#(\d+);/', $temp . '\\1;', $str);
 
-        if ($protectAll === true) {
+        if ($protectAll) {
             $str = preg_replace('/&(\w+);/', $temp . '\\1;', $str);
         }
 
@@ -52,7 +52,7 @@ function xml_convert(string $str, bool $protectAll = false): string
         // Decode the temp markers back to entities
         $str = preg_replace('/' . $temp . '(\d+);/', '&#\\1;', $str);
 
-        if ($protectAll === true) {
+        if ($protectAll) {
             return preg_replace('/' . $temp . '(\w+);/', '&\\1;', $str);
         }
 
diff --git a/system/HotReloader/HotReloader.php b/system/HotReloader/HotReloader.php
index 6dfd0fcf..305e641a 100644
--- a/system/HotReloader/HotReloader.php
+++ b/system/HotReloader/HotReloader.php
@@ -37,7 +37,7 @@ public function run(): void
         $appHash = $hasher->hash();
 
         while (true) {
-            if (connection_status() !== CONNECTION_NORMAL || connection_aborted()) {
+            if (connection_status() !== CONNECTION_NORMAL || connection_aborted() === 1) {
                 break;
             }
 
@@ -50,6 +50,7 @@ public function run(): void
                 $this->sendEvent('reload', ['time' => date('Y-m-d H:i:s')]);
                 break;
             }
+
             if (mt_rand(1, 10) > 8) {
                 $this->sendEvent('ping', ['time' => date('Y-m-d H:i:s')]);
             }
diff --git a/system/I18n/TimeTrait.php b/system/I18n/TimeTrait.php
index fefb2fc5..354b7542 100644
--- a/system/I18n/TimeTrait.php
+++ b/system/I18n/TimeTrait.php
@@ -73,7 +73,7 @@ trait TimeTrait
      */
     public function __construct(?string $time = null, $timezone = null, ?string $locale = null)
     {
-        $this->locale = $locale ?: Locale::getDefault();
+        $this->locale = $locale !== null && $locale !== '' && $locale !== '0' ? $locale : Locale::getDefault();
 
         $time ??= '';
 
@@ -958,7 +958,7 @@ public function sameAs($testTime, ?string $timezone = null): bool
         if ($testTime instanceof DateTimeInterface) {
             $testTime = $testTime->format('Y-m-d H:i:s');
         } elseif (is_string($testTime)) {
-            $timezone = $timezone ?: $this->timezone;
+            $timezone = $timezone !== null && $timezone !== '' && $timezone !== '0' ? $timezone : $this->timezone;
             $timezone = $timezone instanceof DateTimeZone ? $timezone : new DateTimeZone($timezone);
             $testTime = new DateTime($testTime, $timezone);
             $testTime = $testTime->format('Y-m-d H:i:s');
@@ -1108,7 +1108,7 @@ public function getUTCObject($time, ?string $timezone = null)
         if ($time instanceof self) {
             $time = $time->toDateTime();
         } elseif (is_string($time)) {
-            $timezone = $timezone ?: $this->timezone;
+            $timezone = $timezone !== null && $timezone !== '' && $timezone !== '0' ? $timezone : $this->timezone;
             $timezone = $timezone instanceof DateTimeZone ? $timezone : new DateTimeZone($timezone);
             $time     = new DateTime($time, $timezone);
         }
diff --git a/system/Images/Handlers/ImageMagickHandler.php b/system/Images/Handlers/ImageMagickHandler.php
index fa226ccf..583a2759 100644
--- a/system/Images/Handlers/ImageMagickHandler.php
+++ b/system/Images/Handlers/ImageMagickHandler.php
@@ -42,7 +42,7 @@ public function __construct($config = null)
     {
         parent::__construct($config);
 
-        if (! (extension_loaded('imagick') || class_exists(Imagick::class))) {
+        if (! extension_loaded('imagick') && ! class_exists(Imagick::class)) {
             throw ImageException::forMissingExtension('IMAGICK'); // @codeCoverageIgnore
         }
 
@@ -81,7 +81,7 @@ public function _resize(bool $maintainRatio = false)
             $escape = '';
         }
 
-        $action = $maintainRatio === true
+        $action = $maintainRatio
             ? ' -resize ' . ($this->width ?? 0) . 'x' . ($this->height ?? 0) . ' "' . $source . '" "' . $destination . '"'
             : ' -resize ' . ($this->width ?? 0) . 'x' . ($this->height ?? 0) . "{$escape}! \"" . $source . '" "' . $destination . '"';
 
diff --git a/system/Images/Image.php b/system/Images/Image.php
index a2cf5143..55754e33 100644
--- a/system/Images/Image.php
+++ b/system/Images/Image.php
@@ -102,8 +102,9 @@ public function copy(string $targetPath, ?string $targetName = null, int $perms
     public function getProperties(bool $return = false)
     {
         $path = $this->getPathname();
+        $vals = getimagesize($path);
 
-        if (! $vals = getimagesize($path)) {
+        if ($vals === false) {
             throw ImageException::forFileNotSupported();
         }
 
@@ -116,7 +117,7 @@ public function getProperties(bool $return = false)
 
         $mime = 'image/' . ($types[$vals[2]] ?? 'jpg');
 
-        if ($return === true) {
+        if ($return) {
             return [
                 'width'      => $vals[0],
                 'height'     => $vals[1],
diff --git a/system/Log/Handlers/ChromeLoggerHandler.php b/system/Log/Handlers/ChromeLoggerHandler.php
index 8d39d4c0..37c7c0ff 100644
--- a/system/Log/Handlers/ChromeLoggerHandler.php
+++ b/system/Log/Handlers/ChromeLoggerHandler.php
@@ -14,7 +14,6 @@
 namespace CodeIgniter\Log\Handlers;
 
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\ResponseInterface;
-use Config\Services;
 
 /**
  * Class ChromeLoggerHandler
@@ -156,8 +155,8 @@ protected function format($object)
      */
     public function sendLogs(?ResponseInterface &$response = null)
     {
-        if ($response === null) {
-            $response = Services::response(null, true);
+        if (! $response instanceof ResponseInterface) {
+            $response = service('response', null, true);
         }
 
         $data = base64_encode(
diff --git a/system/Log/Handlers/FileHandler.php b/system/Log/Handlers/FileHandler.php
index 42dd9cee..64d1485f 100644
--- a/system/Log/Handlers/FileHandler.php
+++ b/system/Log/Handlers/FileHandler.php
@@ -76,6 +76,7 @@ public function handle($level, $message): bool
 
         $msg = '';
 
+        $newfile = false;
         if (! is_file($filepath)) {
             $newfile = true;
 
@@ -117,7 +118,7 @@ public function handle($level, $message): bool
         flock($fp, LOCK_UN);
         fclose($fp);
 
-        if (isset($newfile) && $newfile === true) {
+        if ($newfile) {
             chmod($filepath, $this->filePermissions);
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Model.php b/system/Model.php
index d5df3f86..98e3be0b 100644
--- a/system/Model.php
+++ b/system/Model.php
@@ -317,13 +317,13 @@ protected function doFirst()
 
         if ($this->tempUseSoftDeletes) {
             $builder->where($this->table . '.' . $this->deletedField, null);
-        } elseif ($this->useSoftDeletes && ($builder->QBGroupBy === []) && $this->primaryKey) {
+        } elseif ($this->useSoftDeletes && ($builder->QBGroupBy === []) && $this->primaryKey !== '') {
             $builder->groupBy($this->table . '.' . $this->primaryKey);
         }
 
         // Some databases, like PostgreSQL, need order
         // information to consistently return correct results.
-        if ($builder->QBGroupBy && ($builder->QBOrderBy === []) && $this->primaryKey) {
+        if ($builder->QBGroupBy !== [] && ($builder->QBOrderBy === []) && $this->primaryKey !== '') {
             $builder->orderBy($this->table . '.' . $this->primaryKey, 'asc');
         }
 
@@ -443,7 +443,7 @@ protected function doUpdate($id = null, $row = null): bool
 
         $builder = $this->builder();
 
-        if ($id) {
+        if (! in_array($id, [null, '', 0, '0', []], true)) {
             $builder = $builder->whereIn($this->table . '.' . $this->primaryKey, $id);
         }
 
@@ -496,7 +496,7 @@ protected function doDelete($id = null, bool $purge = false)
         $set     = [];
         $builder = $this->builder();
 
-        if ($id) {
+        if (! in_array($id, [null, '', 0, '0', []], true)) {
             $builder = $builder->whereIn($this->primaryKey, $id);
         }
 
@@ -592,9 +592,9 @@ protected function doErrors()
      */
     public function getIdValue($row)
     {
-        if (is_object($row) && isset($row->{$this->primaryKey})) {
-            // Get the raw primary key value of the Entity.
-            if ($row instanceof Entity) {
+        if (is_object($row)) {
+            // Get the raw or mapped primary key value of the Entity.
+            if ($row instanceof Entity && $row->{$this->primaryKey} !== null) {
                 $cast = $row->cast();
 
                 // Disable Entity casting, because raw primary key value is needed for database.
@@ -608,7 +608,9 @@ public function getIdValue($row)
                 return $primaryKey;
             }
 
-            return $row->{$this->primaryKey};
+            if (! $row instanceof Entity && isset($row->{$this->primaryKey})) {
+                return $row->{$this->primaryKey};
+            }
         }
 
         if (is_array($row) && isset($row[$this->primaryKey])) {
@@ -623,10 +625,6 @@ public function getIdValue($row)
      * Works with $this->builder to get the Compiled select to
      * determine the rows to operate on.
      * This method works only with dbCalls.
-     *
-     * @return void
-     *
-     * @throws DataException
      */
     public function chunk(int $size, Closure $userFunc)
     {
@@ -692,7 +690,7 @@ public function builder(?string $table = null)
         // Check for an existing Builder
         if ($this->builder instanceof BaseBuilder) {
             // Make sure the requested table matches the builder
-            if ($table && $this->builder->getTable() !== $table) {
+            if ((string) $table !== '' && $this->builder->getTable() !== $table) {
                 return $this->db->table($table);
             }
 
@@ -706,7 +704,7 @@ public function builder(?string $table = null)
             throw ModelException::forNoPrimaryKey(static::class);
         }
 
-        $table = ($table === null || $table === '') ? $this->table : $table;
+        $table = ((string) $table === '') ? $this->table : $table;
 
         // Ensure we have a good db connection
         if (! $this->db instanceof BaseConnection) {
diff --git a/system/Pager/Pager.php b/system/Pager/Pager.php
index af0e9acc..3bdc8538 100644
--- a/system/Pager/Pager.php
+++ b/system/Pager/Pager.php
@@ -288,7 +288,7 @@ public function getPageURI(?int $page = null, string $group = 'default', bool $r
             $uri->setQueryArray($query);
         }
 
-        return ($returnObject === true)
+        return $returnObject
             ? $uri
             : URI::createURIString(
                 $uri->getScheme(),
diff --git a/system/RESTful/BaseResource.php b/system/RESTful/BaseResource.php
index 0360bdb1..f2e171c8 100644
--- a/system/RESTful/BaseResource.php
+++ b/system/RESTful/BaseResource.php
@@ -61,7 +61,7 @@ public function initController(RequestInterface $request, ResponseInterface $res
      */
     public function setModel($which = null)
     {
-        if ($which) {
+        if ($which !== null) {
             $this->model     = is_object($which) ? $which : null;
             $this->modelName = is_object($which) ? null : $which;
         }
diff --git a/system/Router/AutoRouter.php b/system/Router/AutoRouter.php
index 6e9f3248..ce40f5cd 100644
--- a/system/Router/AutoRouter.php
+++ b/system/Router/AutoRouter.php
@@ -105,7 +105,7 @@ public function getRoute(string $uri, string $httpVerb): array
         if ($httpVerb !== 'CLI') {
             $controller = '\\' . $this->defaultNamespace;
 
-            $controller .= $this->directory ? str_replace('/', '\\', $this->directory) : '';
+            $controller .= $this->directory !== null ? str_replace('/', '\\', $this->directory) : '';
             $controller .= $controllerName;
 
             $controller = strtolower($controller);
@@ -244,7 +244,7 @@ private function isValidSegment(string $segment): bool
      */
     public function setDirectory(?string $dir = null, bool $append = false, bool $validate = true)
     {
-        if ($dir === null || $dir === '') {
+        if ((string) $dir === '') {
             $this->directory = null;
 
             return;
@@ -260,7 +260,7 @@ public function setDirectory(?string $dir = null, bool $append = false, bool $va
             }
         }
 
-        if ($append !== true || ($this->directory === null || $this->directory === '')) {
+        if (! $append || ((string) $this->directory === '')) {
             $this->directory = trim($dir, '/') . '/';
         } else {
             $this->directory .= trim($dir, '/') . '/';
@@ -275,7 +275,7 @@ public function setDirectory(?string $dir = null, bool $append = false, bool $va
      */
     public function directory(): string
     {
-        return ($this->directory !== null && $this->directory !== '') ? $this->directory : '';
+        return ((string) $this->directory !== '') ? $this->directory : '';
     }
 
     private function controllerName(): string
diff --git a/system/Router/RouteCollection.php b/system/Router/RouteCollection.php
index 8fba39dc..13cbba44 100644
--- a/system/Router/RouteCollection.php
+++ b/system/Router/RouteCollection.php
@@ -21,7 +21,6 @@
 use Config\App;
 use Config\Modules;
 use Config\Routing;
-use Config\Services;
 use InvalidArgumentException;
 
 /**
@@ -283,7 +282,7 @@ public function __construct(FileLocatorInterface $locator, Modules $moduleConfig
         $this->fileLocator  = $locator;
         $this->moduleConfig = $moduleConfig;
 
-        $this->httpHost = Services::request()->getServer('HTTP_HOST');
+        $this->httpHost = service('request')->getServer('HTTP_HOST');
 
         // Setup based on config file. Let routes file override.
         $this->defaultNamespace   = rtrim($routing->defaultNamespace, '\\') . '\\';
@@ -561,7 +560,7 @@ public function shouldAutoRoute(): bool
      */
     public function getRoutes(?string $verb = null, bool $includeWildcard = true): array
     {
-        if ($verb === null || $verb === '') {
+        if ((string) $verb === '') {
             $verb = $this->getHTTPVerb();
         }
 
@@ -610,7 +609,7 @@ public function getRoutesOptions(?string $from = null, ?string $verb = null): ar
     {
         $options = $this->loadRoutesOptions($verb);
 
-        return $from ? $options[$from] ?? [] : $options;
+        return ((string) $from !== '') ? $options[$from] ?? [] : $options;
     }
 
     /**
@@ -780,7 +779,7 @@ public function group(string $name, ...$params)
 
         $callback = array_pop($params);
 
-        if ($params && is_array($params[0])) {
+        if ($params !== [] && is_array($params[0])) {
             $options = array_shift($params);
 
             if (isset($options['filter'])) {
@@ -1159,6 +1158,8 @@ public function view(string $from, string $view, ?array $options = null): RouteC
 
     /**
      * Limits the routes to a specified ENVIRONMENT or they won't run.
+     *
+     * @param Closure(RouteCollection): void $callback
      */
     public function environment(string $env, Closure $callback): RouteCollectionInterface
     {
@@ -1328,7 +1329,7 @@ protected function fillRouteParams(string $from, ?array $params = null): string
         $patterns = $matches[0];
 
         foreach ($patterns as $index => $pattern) {
-            if (! preg_match('#^' . $pattern . '$#u', $params[$index])) {
+            if (preg_match('#^' . $pattern . '$#u', $params[$index]) !== 1) {
                 throw RouterException::forInvalidParameterType();
             }
 
@@ -1390,7 +1391,7 @@ protected function buildReverseRoute(string $from, array $params): string
             // or maybe $placeholder is not a placeholder, but a regex.
             $pattern = $this->placeholders[$placeholderName] ?? $placeholder;
 
-            if (! preg_match('#^' . $pattern . '$#u', (string) $params[$index])) {
+            if (preg_match('#^' . $pattern . '$#u', (string) $params[$index]) !== 1) {
                 throw RouterException::forInvalidParameterType();
             }
 
@@ -1415,14 +1416,14 @@ private function replaceLocale(string $route, ?string $locale = null): string
         }
 
         // Check invalid locale
-        if ($locale !== null) {
+        if ((string) $locale !== '') {
             $config = config(App::class);
             if (! in_array($locale, $config->supportedLocales, true)) {
                 $locale = null;
             }
         }
 
-        if ($locale === null) {
+        if ((string) $locale === '') {
             $locale = service('request')->getLocale();
         }
 
@@ -1604,7 +1605,7 @@ private function processArrayCallableSyntax(string $from, array $to): string
     private function getMethodParams(string $from): string
     {
         preg_match_all('/\(.+?\)/', $from, $matches);
-        $count = is_countable($matches[0]) ? count($matches[0]) : 0;
+        $count = count($matches[0]);
 
         $params = '';
 
diff --git a/system/Router/Router.php b/system/Router/Router.php
index d60313f6..0cd16149 100644
--- a/system/Router/Router.php
+++ b/system/Router/Router.php
@@ -247,7 +247,7 @@ public function getFilters(): array
      */
     public function controllerName()
     {
-        return $this->translateURIDashes
+        return $this->translateURIDashes && ! $this->controller instanceof Closure
             ? str_replace('-', '_', $this->controller)
             : $this->controller;
     }
@@ -433,7 +433,7 @@ protected function checkRoutes(string $uri): bool
                 // Is this route supposed to redirect to another?
                 if ($this->collection->isRedirect($routeKey)) {
                     // replacing matched route groups with references: post/([0-9]+) -> post/$1
-                    $redirectTo = preg_replace_callback('/(\([^\(]+\))/', static function () {
+                    $redirectTo = preg_replace_callback('/(\([^\(]+\))/', static function (): string {
                         static $i = 1;
 
                         return '$' . $i++;
diff --git a/system/Security/Security.php b/system/Security/Security.php
index 0b51062e..b6d26602 100644
--- a/system/Security/Security.php
+++ b/system/Security/Security.php
@@ -377,7 +377,7 @@ protected function derandomize(string $token): string
             return bin2hex(hex2bin($value) ^ hex2bin($key));
         } catch (ErrorException $e) {
             // "hex2bin(): Hexadecimal input string must have an even length"
-            throw new InvalidArgumentException($e->getMessage());
+            throw new InvalidArgumentException($e->getMessage(), $e->getCode(), $e);
         }
     }
 
@@ -422,7 +422,7 @@ public function shouldRedirect(): bool
      *
      * If it is acceptable for the user input to include relative paths,
      * e.g. file/in/some/approved/folder.txt, you can set the second optional
-     * parameter, $relative_path to TRUE.
+     * parameter, $relativePath to TRUE.
      *
      * @param string $str          Input file name
      * @param bool   $relativePath Whether to preserve paths
diff --git a/system/Security/SecurityInterface.php b/system/Security/SecurityInterface.php
index 1460cf0e..03a5ba23 100644
--- a/system/Security/SecurityInterface.php
+++ b/system/Security/SecurityInterface.php
@@ -64,7 +64,7 @@ public function shouldRedirect(): bool;
      *
      * If it is acceptable for the user input to include relative paths,
      * e.g. file/in/some/approved/folder.txt, you can set the second optional
-     * parameter, $relative_path to TRUE.
+     * parameter, $relativePath to TRUE.
      *
      * @param string $str          Input file name
      * @param bool   $relativePath Whether to preserve paths
diff --git a/system/Session/Handlers/Database/PostgreHandler.php b/system/Session/Handlers/Database/PostgreHandler.php
index b92ab1e5..e999f356 100644
--- a/system/Session/Handlers/Database/PostgreHandler.php
+++ b/system/Session/Handlers/Database/PostgreHandler.php
@@ -75,7 +75,7 @@ public function gc($max_lifetime)
     protected function lockSession(string $sessionID): bool
     {
         $arg = "hashtext('{$sessionID}')" . ($this->matchIP ? ", hashtext('{$this->ipAddress}')" : '');
-        if ($this->db->simpleQuery("SELECT pg_advisory_lock({$arg})")) {
+        if ($this->db->simpleQuery("SELECT pg_advisory_lock({$arg})") !== false) {
             $this->lock = $arg;
 
             return true;
@@ -93,7 +93,7 @@ protected function releaseLock(): bool
             return true;
         }
 
-        if ($this->db->simpleQuery("SELECT pg_advisory_unlock({$this->lock})")) {
+        if ($this->db->simpleQuery("SELECT pg_advisory_unlock({$this->lock})") !== false) {
             $this->lock = false;
 
             return true;
diff --git a/system/Session/Handlers/DatabaseHandler.php b/system/Session/Handlers/DatabaseHandler.php
index 2d1d2fbb..d36e9592 100644
--- a/system/Session/Handlers/DatabaseHandler.php
+++ b/system/Session/Handlers/DatabaseHandler.php
@@ -282,12 +282,9 @@ public function destroy($id): bool
     #[ReturnTypeWillChange]
     public function gc($max_lifetime)
     {
-        $separator = ' ';
-        $interval  = implode($separator, ['', "{$max_lifetime} second", '']);
-
         return $this->db->table($this->table)->where(
             'timestamp <',
-            "now() - INTERVAL {$interval}",
+            "now() - INTERVAL {$max_lifetime} second",
             false
         )->delete() ? 1 : $this->fail();
     }
diff --git a/system/Session/Handlers/FileHandler.php b/system/Session/Handlers/FileHandler.php
index 4dbec779..6931ab1c 100644
--- a/system/Session/Handlers/FileHandler.php
+++ b/system/Session/Handlers/FileHandler.php
@@ -290,7 +290,7 @@ public function gc($max_lifetime)
 
         while (($file = readdir($directory)) !== false) {
             // If the filename doesn't match this pattern, it's either not a session file or is not ours
-            if (! preg_match($pattern, $file)
+            if (preg_match($pattern, $file) !== 1
                 || ! is_file($this->savePath . DIRECTORY_SEPARATOR . $file)
                 || ($mtime = filemtime($this->savePath . DIRECTORY_SEPARATOR . $file)) === false
                 || $mtime > $ts
diff --git a/system/Session/Handlers/MemcachedHandler.php b/system/Session/Handlers/MemcachedHandler.php
index 79bb4ca4..e651808a 100644
--- a/system/Session/Handlers/MemcachedHandler.php
+++ b/system/Session/Handlers/MemcachedHandler.php
@@ -93,12 +93,12 @@ public function open($path, $name): bool
         }
 
         if (
-            ! preg_match_all(
+            preg_match_all(
                 '#,?([^,:]+)\:(\d{1,5})(?:\:(\d+))?#',
                 $this->savePath,
                 $matches,
                 PREG_SET_ORDER
-            )
+            ) === 0
         ) {
             $this->memcached = null;
             $this->logger->error('Session: Invalid Memcached save path format: ' . $this->savePath);
@@ -267,7 +267,7 @@ protected function lockSession(string $sessionID): bool
         $attempt = 0;
 
         do {
-            if ($this->memcached->get($lockKey)) {
+            if ($this->memcached->get($lockKey) !== false) {
                 sleep(1);
 
                 continue;
diff --git a/system/Session/Session.php b/system/Session/Session.php
index 0aabcbe3..a9b7bd4f 100644
--- a/system/Session/Session.php
+++ b/system/Session/Session.php
@@ -234,7 +234,7 @@ public function start()
 
         // Sanitize the cookie, because apparently PHP doesn't do that for userspace handlers
         if (isset($_COOKIE[$this->config->cookieName])
-            && (! is_string($_COOKIE[$this->config->cookieName]) || ! preg_match('#\A' . $this->sidRegexp . '\z#', $_COOKIE[$this->config->cookieName]))
+            && (! is_string($_COOKIE[$this->config->cookieName]) || preg_match('#\A' . $this->sidRegexp . '\z#', $_COOKIE[$this->config->cookieName]) !== 1)
         ) {
             unset($_COOKIE[$this->config->cookieName]);
         }
@@ -248,7 +248,7 @@ public function start()
             if (! isset($_SESSION['__ci_last_regenerate'])) {
                 $_SESSION['__ci_last_regenerate'] = Time::now()->getTimestamp();
             } elseif ($_SESSION['__ci_last_regenerate'] < (Time::now()->getTimestamp() - $regenerateTime)) {
-                $this->regenerate((bool) $this->config->regenerateDestroy);
+                $this->regenerate($this->config->regenerateDestroy);
             }
         }
         // Another work-around ... PHP doesn't seem to send the session cookie
@@ -258,7 +258,7 @@ public function start()
         }
 
         $this->initVars();
-        $this->logger->info("Session: Class initialized using '" . $this->config->driver . "' driver.");
+        $this->logger->debug("Session: Class initialized using '" . $this->config->driver . "' driver.");
 
         return $this;
     }
diff --git a/system/Test/CIUnitTestCase.php b/system/Test/CIUnitTestCase.php
index 62c0fff8..467e3a61 100644
--- a/system/Test/CIUnitTestCase.php
+++ b/system/Test/CIUnitTestCase.php
@@ -238,7 +238,7 @@ protected function setUp(): void
     {
         parent::setUp();
 
-        if (! $this->app) {
+        if (! $this->app instanceof CodeIgniter) {
             $this->app = $this->createApplication();
         }
 
@@ -374,7 +374,7 @@ public function assertLogContains(string $level, string $logMessage, string $mes
     {
         $this->assertTrue(
             TestLogger::didLog($level, $logMessage, false),
-            $message ?: sprintf(
+            $message !== '' ? $message : sprintf(
                 'Failed asserting that logs have a record of message containing "%s" with level "%s".',
                 $logMessage,
                 $level
diff --git a/system/Test/ControllerTestTrait.php b/system/Test/ControllerTestTrait.php
index ab1a1aef..5a5bc708 100644
--- a/system/Test/ControllerTestTrait.php
+++ b/system/Test/ControllerTestTrait.php
@@ -31,7 +31,7 @@
  *
  *  $this->withRequest($request)
  *       ->withResponse($response)
- *       ->withURI($uri)
+ *       ->withUri($uri)
  *       ->withBody($body)
  *       ->controller('App\Controllers\Home')
  *       ->execute('methodName');
@@ -109,14 +109,14 @@ protected function setUpControllerTestTrait(): void
             $tempUri = service('uri');
             Services::injectMock('uri', $this->uri);
 
-            $this->withRequest(Services::incomingrequest($this->appConfig, false));
+            $this->withRequest(service('incomingrequest', $this->appConfig, false));
 
             // Restore the URI service
             Services::injectMock('uri', $tempUri);
         }
 
         if (empty($this->response)) {
-            $this->response = Services::response($this->appConfig, false);
+            $this->response = service('response', $this->appConfig, false);
         }
 
         if (empty($this->logger)) {
@@ -285,7 +285,7 @@ public function withUri(string $uri)
         Services::injectMock('uri', $this->uri);
 
         // Update the Request instance, because Request has the SiteURI instance.
-        $this->request = Services::incomingrequest(null, false);
+        $this->request = service('incomingrequest', null, false);
         Services::injectMock('request', $this->request);
 
         return $this;
diff --git a/system/Test/FeatureTestTrait.php b/system/Test/FeatureTestTrait.php
index 0f2467ff..13522d87 100644
--- a/system/Test/FeatureTestTrait.php
+++ b/system/Test/FeatureTestTrait.php
@@ -179,8 +179,8 @@ public function call(string $method, string $path, ?array $params = null)
         $method = strtoupper($method);
 
         // Simulate having a blank session
-        $_SESSION                  = [];
-        $_SERVER['REQUEST_METHOD'] = $method;
+        $_SESSION = [];
+        service('superglobals')->setServer('REQUEST_METHOD', $method);
 
         $request = $this->setupRequest($method, $path);
         $request = $this->setupHeaders($request);
@@ -189,7 +189,9 @@ public function call(string $method, string $path, ?array $params = null)
         $request = $this->setRequestBody($request, $params);
 
         // Initialize the RouteCollection
-        if (! $routes = $this->routes) {
+        $routes = $this->routes;
+
+        if ($routes !== []) {
             $routes = service('routes')->loadRoutes();
         }
 
@@ -200,10 +202,10 @@ public function call(string $method, string $path, ?array $params = null)
         Services::injectMock('request', $request);
 
         // Make sure filters are reset between tests
-        Services::injectMock('filters', Services::filters(null, false));
+        Services::injectMock('filters', service('filters', null, false));
 
         // Make sure validation is reset between tests
-        Services::injectMock('validation', Services::validation(null, false));
+        Services::injectMock('validation', service('validation', null, false));
 
         $response = $this->app
             ->setContext('web')
@@ -321,7 +323,7 @@ protected function setupRequest(string $method, ?string $path = null): IncomingR
 
         Services::injectMock('uri', $uri);
 
-        $request = Services::incomingrequest($config, false);
+        $request = service('incomingrequest', $config, false);
 
         $request->setMethod($method);
         $request->setProtocolVersion('1.1');
diff --git a/system/Test/FilterTestTrait.php b/system/Test/FilterTestTrait.php
index 93f273a3..d004ec22 100644
--- a/system/Test/FilterTestTrait.php
+++ b/system/Test/FilterTestTrait.php
@@ -119,6 +119,8 @@ protected function setUpFilterTestTrait(): void
      *
      * @param FilterInterface|string $filter   The filter instance, class, or alias
      * @param string                 $position "before" or "after"
+     *
+     * @phpstan-return Closure(list<string>|null=): mixed
      */
     protected function getFilterCaller($filter, string $position): Closure
     {
@@ -219,7 +221,9 @@ protected function getFiltersForRoute(string $route, string $position): array
 
         $this->filters->reset();
 
-        if ($routeFilters = $this->collection->getFiltersForRoute($route)) {
+        $routeFilters = $this->collection->getFiltersForRoute($route);
+
+        if ($routeFilters !== []) {
             $this->filters->enableFilters($routeFilters, $position);
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Test/ReflectionHelper.php b/system/Test/ReflectionHelper.php
index c72276d1..a1b7ee99 100644
--- a/system/Test/ReflectionHelper.php
+++ b/system/Test/ReflectionHelper.php
@@ -31,15 +31,15 @@ trait ReflectionHelper
      * @param object|string $obj    object or class name
      * @param string        $method method name
      *
-     * @return Closure
+     * @return         Closure
+     * @phpstan-return Closure(mixed ...$args): mixed
      *
      * @throws ReflectionException
      */
     public static function getPrivateMethodInvoker($obj, $method)
     {
         $refMethod = new ReflectionMethod($obj, $method);
-        $refMethod->setAccessible(true);
-        $obj = (gettype($obj) === 'object') ? $obj : null;
+        $obj       = (gettype($obj) === 'object') ? $obj : null;
 
         return static fn (...$args) => $refMethod->invokeArgs($obj, $args);
     }
@@ -58,10 +58,7 @@ private static function getAccessibleRefProperty($obj, $property)
     {
         $refClass = is_object($obj) ? new ReflectionObject($obj) : new ReflectionClass($obj);
 
-        $refProperty = $refClass->getProperty($property);
-        $refProperty->setAccessible(true);
-
-        return $refProperty;
+        return $refClass->getProperty($property);
     }
 
     /**
@@ -73,7 +70,7 @@ private static function getAccessibleRefProperty($obj, $property)
      *
      * @throws ReflectionException
      */
-    public static function setPrivateProperty($obj, $property, $value)
+    public static function setPrivateProperty($obj, $property, $value): void
     {
         $refProperty = self::getAccessibleRefProperty($obj, $property);
 
@@ -90,7 +87,7 @@ public static function setPrivateProperty($obj, $property, $value)
      * @param object|string $obj      object or class name
      * @param string        $property property name
      *
-     * @return mixed value
+     * @return mixed
      *
      * @throws ReflectionException
      */
diff --git a/system/Test/bootstrap.php b/system/Test/bootstrap.php
index 4a068a4c..d2b47aaf 100644
--- a/system/Test/bootstrap.php
+++ b/system/Test/bootstrap.php
@@ -13,7 +13,6 @@
 
 use CodeIgniter\Boot;
 use Config\Paths;
-use Config\Services;
 
 error_reporting(E_ALL);
 ini_set('display_errors', '1');
@@ -88,4 +87,4 @@
  * ---------------------------------------------------------------
  */
 
-Services::routes()->loadRoutes();
+service('routes')->loadRoutes();
diff --git a/system/ThirdParty/PSR/Log/LoggerInterface.php b/system/ThirdParty/PSR/Log/LoggerInterface.php
index 8afabc90..cb4cf648 100644
--- a/system/ThirdParty/PSR/Log/LoggerInterface.php
+++ b/system/ThirdParty/PSR/Log/LoggerInterface.php
@@ -89,6 +89,7 @@ public function debug(string|\Stringable $message, array $context = []): void;
     /**
      * Logs with an arbitrary level.
      *
+     * @param mixed $level
      * @param mixed[] $context
      *
      * @throws \Psr\Log\InvalidArgumentException
diff --git a/system/Traits/ConditionalTrait.php b/system/Traits/ConditionalTrait.php
index c927a681..a778e937 100644
--- a/system/Traits/ConditionalTrait.php
+++ b/system/Traits/ConditionalTrait.php
@@ -29,9 +29,9 @@ trait ConditionalTrait
      */
     public function when($condition, callable $callback, ?callable $defaultCallback = null): self
     {
-        if ($condition) {
+        if ($condition !== '' && $condition !== false && $condition !== null) {
             $callback($this, $condition);
-        } elseif ($defaultCallback) {
+        } elseif ($defaultCallback !== null) {
             $defaultCallback($this);
         }
 
@@ -52,9 +52,9 @@ public function when($condition, callable $callback, ?callable $defaultCallback
      */
     public function whenNot($condition, callable $callback, ?callable $defaultCallback = null): self
     {
-        if (! $condition) {
+        if ($condition === '' || $condition === null || $condition === false || $condition === '0') {
             $callback($this, $condition);
-        } elseif ($defaultCallback) {
+        } elseif ($defaultCallback !== null) {
             $defaultCallback($this);
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Traits/PropertiesTrait.php b/system/Traits/PropertiesTrait.php
index ed2da42e..30b3f866 100644
--- a/system/Traits/PropertiesTrait.php
+++ b/system/Traits/PropertiesTrait.php
@@ -71,7 +71,6 @@ final public function getNonPublicProperties(): array
                 continue;
             }
 
-            $property->setAccessible(true);
             $properties[] = $property;
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Typography/Typography.php b/system/Typography/Typography.php
index 89687d72..145ff68f 100644
--- a/system/Typography/Typography.php
+++ b/system/Typography/Typography.php
@@ -171,7 +171,7 @@ public function autoTypography(string $str, bool $reduceLinebreaks = false): str
         }
 
         // No opening block level tag? Add it if needed.
-        if (! preg_match('/^\s*<(?:' . $this->blockElements . ')/i', $str)) {
+        if (preg_match('/^\s*<(?:' . $this->blockElements . ')/i', $str) !== 1) {
             $str = preg_replace('/^(.*?)<(' . $this->blockElements . ')/i', '<p>$1</p><$2', $str);
         }
 
@@ -214,7 +214,7 @@ public function autoTypography(string $str, bool $reduceLinebreaks = false): str
         ];
 
         // Do we need to reduce empty lines?
-        if ($reduceLinebreaks === true) {
+        if ($reduceLinebreaks) {
             $table['#<p>\n*</p>#'] = '';
         } else {
             // If we have empty paragraph tags we add a non-breaking space
diff --git a/system/Validation/DotArrayFilter.php b/system/Validation/DotArrayFilter.php
index 4d2e1cb1..c7a401e1 100644
--- a/system/Validation/DotArrayFilter.php
+++ b/system/Validation/DotArrayFilter.php
@@ -21,8 +21,6 @@ final class DotArrayFilter
     /**
      * Creates a new array with only the elements specified in dot array syntax.
      *
-     * This code comes from the dot_array_search() function.
-     *
      * @param array $indexes The dot array syntax pattern to use for filtering.
      * @param array $array   The array to filter.
      *
@@ -33,20 +31,14 @@ public static function run(array $indexes, array $array): array
         $result = [];
 
         foreach ($indexes as $index) {
-            // See https://regex101.com/r/44Ipql/1
-            $segments = preg_split(
-                '/(?<!\\\\)\./',
-                rtrim($index, '* '),
-                0,
-                PREG_SPLIT_NO_EMPTY
-            );
-
-            $segments = array_map(
-                static fn ($key) => str_replace('\.', '.', $key),
-                $segments
-            );
-
-            $result = array_replace_recursive($result, self::filter($segments, $array));
+            $segments = preg_split('/(?<!\\\\)\./', $index, -1, PREG_SPLIT_NO_EMPTY);
+            $segments = array_map(static fn ($key) => str_replace('\.', '.', $key), $segments);
+
+            $filteredArray = self::filter($segments, $array);
+
+            if ($filteredArray !== []) {
+                $result = array_replace_recursive($result, $filteredArray);
+            }
         }
 
         return $result;
@@ -62,53 +54,54 @@ public static function run(array $indexes, array $array): array
      */
     private static function filter(array $indexes, array $array): array
     {
-        // If index is empty, returns empty array.
+        // If there are no indexes left, return an empty array
         if ($indexes === []) {
             return [];
         }
 
-        // Grab the current index.
+        // Get the current index
         $currentIndex = array_shift($indexes);
 
+        // If the current index doesn't exist and is not a wildcard, return an empty array
         if (! isset($array[$currentIndex]) && $currentIndex !== '*') {
             return [];
         }
 
-        // Handle Wildcard (*)
+        // Handle the wildcard '*' at the current level
         if ($currentIndex === '*') {
-            $answer = [];
+            $result = [];
 
+            // Iterate over all keys at this level
             foreach ($array as $key => $value) {
-                if (! is_array($value)) {
-                    continue;
-                }
-
-                $result = self::filter($indexes, $value);
-
-                if ($result !== []) {
-                    $answer[$key] = $result;
+                if ($indexes === []) {
+                    // If no indexes are left, capture the entire value
+                    $result[$key] = $value;
+                } elseif (is_array($value)) {
+                    // If there are still indexes left, continue filtering recursively
+                    $filtered = self::filter($indexes, $value);
+                    if ($filtered !== []) {
+                        $result[$key] = $filtered;
+                    }
                 }
             }
 
-            return $answer;
+            return $result;
         }
 
-        // If this is the last index, make sure to return it now,
-        // and not try to recurse through things.
+        // If this is the last index, return the value
         if ($indexes === []) {
-            return [$currentIndex => $array[$currentIndex]];
+            return [$currentIndex => $array[$currentIndex] ?? []];
         }
 
-        // Do we need to recursively filter this value?
-        if (is_array($array[$currentIndex]) && $array[$currentIndex] !== []) {
-            $result = self::filter($indexes, $array[$currentIndex]);
+        // If the current value is an array, recursively filter it
+        if (is_array($array[$currentIndex])) {
+            $filtered = self::filter($indexes, $array[$currentIndex]);
 
-            if ($result !== []) {
-                return [$currentIndex => $result];
+            if ($filtered !== []) {
+                return [$currentIndex => $filtered];
             }
         }
 
-        // Otherwise, not found.
         return [];
     }
 }
diff --git a/system/Validation/FileRules.php b/system/Validation/FileRules.php
index dd8c4290..058b1573 100644
--- a/system/Validation/FileRules.php
+++ b/system/Validation/FileRules.php
@@ -38,7 +38,7 @@ class FileRules
      */
     public function __construct(?RequestInterface $request = null)
     {
-        if ($request === null) {
+        if (! $request instanceof RequestInterface) {
             $request = service('request');
         }
 
@@ -52,7 +52,9 @@ public function __construct(?RequestInterface $request = null)
      */
     public function uploaded(?string $blank, string $name): bool
     {
-        if (! ($files = $this->request->getFileMultiple($name))) {
+        $files = $this->request->getFileMultiple($name);
+
+        if ($files === [] || $files === null) {
             $files = [$this->request->getFile($name)];
         }
 
@@ -86,12 +88,15 @@ public function max_size(?string $blank, string $params): bool
         // Grab the file name off the top of the $params
         // after we split it.
         $paramArray = explode(',', $params);
+
         if (count($paramArray) !== 2) {
             throw new InvalidArgumentException('Invalid max_size parameter: "' . $params . '"');
         }
-        $name = array_shift($paramArray);
 
-        if (! ($files = $this->request->getFileMultiple($name))) {
+        $name  = array_shift($paramArray);
+        $files = $this->request->getFileMultiple($name);
+
+        if ($files === [] || $files === null) {
             $files = [$this->request->getFile($name)];
         }
 
@@ -126,8 +131,9 @@ public function is_image(?string $blank, string $params): bool
         // after we split it.
         $params = explode(',', $params);
         $name   = array_shift($params);
+        $files  = $this->request->getFileMultiple($name);
 
-        if (! ($files = $this->request->getFileMultiple($name))) {
+        if ($files === [] || $files === null) {
             $files = [$this->request->getFile($name)];
         }
 
@@ -161,8 +167,9 @@ public function mime_in(?string $blank, string $params): bool
         // after we split it.
         $params = explode(',', $params);
         $name   = array_shift($params);
+        $files  = $this->request->getFileMultiple($name);
 
-        if (! ($files = $this->request->getFileMultiple($name))) {
+        if ($files === [] || $files === null) {
             $files = [$this->request->getFile($name)];
         }
 
@@ -192,8 +199,9 @@ public function ext_in(?string $blank, string $params): bool
         // after we split it.
         $params = explode(',', $params);
         $name   = array_shift($params);
+        $files  = $this->request->getFileMultiple($name);
 
-        if (! ($files = $this->request->getFileMultiple($name))) {
+        if ($files === [] || $files === null) {
             $files = [$this->request->getFile($name)];
         }
 
@@ -224,8 +232,9 @@ public function max_dims(?string $blank, string $params): bool
         // after we split it.
         $params = explode(',', $params);
         $name   = array_shift($params);
+        $files  = $this->request->getFileMultiple($name);
 
-        if (! ($files = $this->request->getFileMultiple($name))) {
+        if ($files === [] || $files === null) {
             $files = [$this->request->getFile($name)];
         }
 
diff --git a/system/Validation/Rules.php b/system/Validation/Rules.php
index 04e8a054..7f2f0bd9 100644
--- a/system/Validation/Rules.php
+++ b/system/Validation/Rules.php
@@ -140,7 +140,7 @@ public function is_not_unique($str, string $field, array $data): bool
         if (
             $whereField !== null && $whereField !== ''
             && $whereValue !== null && $whereValue !== ''
-            && ! preg_match('/^\{(\w+)\}$/', $whereValue)
+            && preg_match('/^\{(\w+)\}$/', $whereValue) !== 1
         ) {
             $row = $row->where($whereField, $whereValue);
         }
@@ -198,7 +198,7 @@ public function is_unique($str, string $field, array $data): bool
         if (
             $ignoreField !== null && $ignoreField !== ''
             && $ignoreValue !== null && $ignoreValue !== ''
-            && ! preg_match('/^\{(\w+)\}$/', $ignoreValue)
+            && preg_match('/^\{(\w+)\}$/', $ignoreValue) !== 1
         ) {
             $row = $row->where("{$ignoreField} !=", $ignoreValue);
         }
@@ -359,10 +359,8 @@ public function required_with($str = null, ?string $fields = null, array $data =
 
         foreach (explode(',', $fields) as $field) {
             if (
-                (array_key_exists($field, $data)
-                    && ! empty($data[$field]))  // @phpstan-ignore-line Use empty()
-                || (str_contains($field, '.')
-                    && ! empty(dot_array_search($field, $data)))  // @phpstan-ignore-line Use empty()
+                (array_key_exists($field, $data) && ! empty($data[$field]))
+                || (str_contains($field, '.') && ! empty(dot_array_search($field, $data)))
             ) {
                 $requiredFields[] = $field;
             }
@@ -409,7 +407,7 @@ public function required_without(
             if (
                 (! str_contains($otherField, '.'))
                 && (! array_key_exists($otherField, $data)
-                    || empty($data[$otherField])) // @phpstan-ignore-line Use empty()
+                    || empty($data[$otherField]))
             ) {
                 return false;
             }
@@ -424,7 +422,7 @@ public function required_without(
                 $fieldKey        = $fieldSplitArray[1];
 
                 if (is_array($fieldData)) {
-                    return ! empty(dot_array_search($otherField, $data)[$fieldKey]);  // @phpstan-ignore-line Use empty()
+                    return ! empty(dot_array_search($otherField, $data)[$fieldKey]);
                 }
                 $nowField      = str_replace('*', $fieldKey, $otherField);
                 $nowFieldVaule = dot_array_search($nowField, $data);
diff --git a/system/Validation/StrictRules/Rules.php b/system/Validation/StrictRules/Rules.php
index ec02a4e0..c9b98c47 100644
--- a/system/Validation/StrictRules/Rules.php
+++ b/system/Validation/StrictRules/Rules.php
@@ -164,7 +164,7 @@ public function is_not_unique($str, string $field, array $data): bool
         if (
             $whereField !== null && $whereField !== ''
             && $whereValue !== null && $whereValue !== ''
-            && ! preg_match('/^\{(\w+)\}$/', $whereValue)
+            && preg_match('/^\{(\w+)\}$/', $whereValue) !== 1
         ) {
             $row = $row->where($whereField, $whereValue);
         }
@@ -224,7 +224,7 @@ public function is_unique($str, string $field, array $data): bool
         if (
             $ignoreField !== null && $ignoreField !== ''
             && $ignoreValue !== null && $ignoreValue !== ''
-            && ! preg_match('/^\{(\w+)\}$/', $ignoreValue)
+            && preg_match('/^\{(\w+)\}$/', $ignoreValue) !== 1
         ) {
             $row = $row->where("{$ignoreField} !=", $ignoreValue);
         }
diff --git a/system/Validation/Validation.php b/system/Validation/Validation.php
index a4d817d2..c00329d6 100644
--- a/system/Validation/Validation.php
+++ b/system/Validation/Validation.php
@@ -21,7 +21,6 @@
 use CodeIgniter\HTTP\RequestInterface;
 use CodeIgniter\Validation\Exceptions\ValidationException;
 use CodeIgniter\View\RendererInterface;
-use Config\Services;
 use Config\Validation as ValidationConfig;
 use InvalidArgumentException;
 use LogicException;
@@ -182,7 +181,7 @@ public function run(?array $data = null, ?string $group = null, $dbGroup = null)
                 );
 
                 // if keys not found
-                $values = $values ?: [$field => null];
+                $values = $values !== [] ? $values : [$field => null];
             } else {
                 $values = dot_array_search($field, $data);
             }
@@ -456,7 +455,7 @@ private function processPermitEmpty($value, array $rules, array $data)
                     }
                 }
 
-                if ($passed === true) {
+                if ($passed) {
                     return true;
                 }
             }
@@ -468,7 +467,7 @@ private function processPermitEmpty($value, array $rules, array $data)
     }
 
     /**
-     * @param Closure|string $rule
+     * @param Closure(bool|float|int|list<mixed>|object|string|null, bool|float|int|list<mixed>|object|string|null, string|null, string|null): (bool|string) $rule
      */
     private function isClosure($rule): bool
     {
@@ -796,7 +795,7 @@ protected function fillPlaceholders(array $rules, array $data): array
                     $placeholderFields = $this->retrievePlaceholders($row, $data);
 
                     foreach ($placeholderFields as $field) {
-                        $validator ??= Services::validation(null, false);
+                        $validator ??= service('validation', null, false);
                         assert($validator instanceof Validation);
 
                         $placeholderRules = $rules[$field]['rules'] ?? null;
@@ -919,26 +918,24 @@ protected function getErrorMessage(
     ): string {
         $param ??= '';
 
+        $args = [
+            'field' => ($label === null || $label === '') ? $field : lang($label),
+            'param' => (! isset($this->rules[$param]['label'])) ? $param : lang($this->rules[$param]['label']),
+            'value' => $value ?? '',
+        ];
+
         // Check if custom message has been defined by user
         if (isset($this->customErrors[$field][$rule])) {
-            $message = lang($this->customErrors[$field][$rule]);
-        } elseif (null !== $originalField && isset($this->customErrors[$originalField][$rule])) {
-            $message = lang($this->customErrors[$originalField][$rule]);
-        } else {
-            // Try to grab a localized version of the message...
-            // lang() will return the rule name back if not found,
-            // so there will always be a string being returned.
-            $message = lang('Validation.' . $rule);
+            return lang($this->customErrors[$field][$rule], $args);
+        }
+        if (null !== $originalField && isset($this->customErrors[$originalField][$rule])) {
+            return lang($this->customErrors[$originalField][$rule], $args);
         }
 
-        $message = str_replace('{field}', ($label === null || $label === '') ? $field : lang($label), $message);
-        $message = str_replace(
-            '{param}',
-            (! isset($this->rules[$param]['label'])) ? $param : lang($this->rules[$param]['label']),
-            $message
-        );
-
-        return str_replace('{value}', $value ?? '', $message);
+        // Try to grab a localized version of the message...
+        // lang() will return the rule name back if not found,
+        // so there will always be a string being returned.
+        return lang('Validation.' . $rule, $args);
     }
 
     /**
diff --git a/system/View/Cell.php b/system/View/Cell.php
index 28b249a6..f2801e41 100644
--- a/system/View/Cell.php
+++ b/system/View/Cell.php
@@ -17,7 +17,6 @@
 use CodeIgniter\Config\Factories;
 use CodeIgniter\View\Cells\Cell as BaseCell;
 use CodeIgniter\View\Exceptions\ViewException;
-use Config\Services;
 use ReflectionException;
 use ReflectionMethod;
 
@@ -93,7 +92,7 @@ public function render(string $library, $params = null, int $ttl = 0, ?string $c
         }
 
         if (method_exists($instance, 'initController')) {
-            $instance->initController(Services::request(), service('response'), service('logger'));
+            $instance->initController(service('request'), service('response'), service('logger'));
         }
 
         if (! method_exists($instance, $method)) {
diff --git a/system/View/Filters.php b/system/View/Filters.php
index dde9ec6d..0be48b6d 100644
--- a/system/View/Filters.php
+++ b/system/View/Filters.php
@@ -71,9 +71,7 @@ public static function date_modify($value, string $adjustment)
      */
     public static function default($value, string $default): string
     {
-        return empty($value) // @phpstan-ignore-line
-            ? $default
-            : $value;
+        return empty($value) ? $default : $value;
     }
 
     /**
diff --git a/system/View/Parser.php b/system/View/Parser.php
index bbeb00f7..08fec93e 100644
--- a/system/View/Parser.php
+++ b/system/View/Parser.php
@@ -254,20 +254,39 @@ protected function parse(string $template, array $data = [], ?array $options = n
         // it can potentially modify any template between its tags.
         $template = $this->parsePlugins($template);
 
-        // loop over the data variables, replacing
-        // the content as we go.
+        // Parse stack for each parse type (Single and Pairs)
+        $replaceSingleStack = [];
+        $replacePairsStack  = [];
+
+        // loop over the data variables, saving regex and data
+        // for later replacement.
         foreach ($data as $key => $val) {
             $escape = true;
 
             if (is_array($val)) {
-                $escape  = false;
-                $replace = $this->parsePair($key, $val, $template);
+                $escape              = false;
+                $replacePairsStack[] = [
+                    'replace' => $this->parsePair($key, $val, $template),
+                    'escape'  => $escape,
+                ];
             } else {
-                $replace = $this->parseSingle($key, (string) $val);
+                $replaceSingleStack[] = [
+                    'replace' => $this->parseSingle($key, (string) $val),
+                    'escape'  => $escape,
+                ];
             }
+        }
+
+        // Merge both stacks, pairs first + single stacks
+        // This allows for nested data with the same key to be replaced properly
+        $replace = array_merge($replacePairsStack, $replaceSingleStack);
 
-            foreach ($replace as $pattern => $content) {
-                $template = $this->replaceSingle($pattern, $content, $template, $escape);
+        // Loop over each replace array item which
+        // holds all the data to be replaced
+        foreach ($replace as $replaceItem) {
+            // Loop over the actual data to be replaced
+            foreach ($replaceItem['replace'] as $pattern => $content) {
+                $template = $this->replaceSingle($pattern, $content, $template, $replaceItem['escape']);
             }
         }
 
@@ -534,7 +553,7 @@ protected function replaceSingle($pattern, $content, $template, bool $escape = f
         $content = (string) $content;
 
         // Replace the content in the template
-        return preg_replace_callback($pattern, function ($matches) use ($content, $escape) {
+        return preg_replace_callback($pattern, function ($matches) use ($content, $escape): string {
             // Check for {! !} syntax to not escape this one.
             if (
                 str_starts_with($matches[0], $this->leftDelimiter . '!')
@@ -594,7 +613,7 @@ public function shouldAddEscaping(string $key)
             $escape = false;
         }
         // If no `esc` filter is found, then we'll need to add one.
-        elseif (! preg_match('/\s+esc/u', $key)) {
+        elseif (preg_match('/\s+esc/u', $key) !== 1) {
             $escape = 'html';
         }
 
@@ -672,7 +691,7 @@ protected function parsePlugins(string $template)
              *   $matches[1] = all parameters string in opening tag
              *   $matches[2] = content between the tags to send to the plugin.
              */
-            if (! preg_match_all($pattern, $template, $matches, PREG_SET_ORDER)) {
+            if (preg_match_all($pattern, $template, $matches, PREG_SET_ORDER) === 0) {
                 continue;
             }
 
diff --git a/system/View/Table.php b/system/View/Table.php
index 60ccc509..9eb29578 100644
--- a/system/View/Table.php
+++ b/system/View/Table.php
@@ -333,7 +333,7 @@ public function generate($tableData = null)
         $out = $this->template['table_open'] . $this->newline;
 
         // Add any caption here
-        if ($this->caption) {
+        if (isset($this->caption) && $this->caption !== '') {
             $out .= '<caption>' . $this->caption . '</caption>' . $this->newline;
         }
 
diff --git a/tests/session/ExampleSessionTest.php b/tests/session/ExampleSessionTest.php
index 6ada0c56..33242a47 100644
--- a/tests/session/ExampleSessionTest.php
+++ b/tests/session/ExampleSessionTest.php
@@ -1,7 +1,6 @@
 <?php
 
 use CodeIgniter\Test\CIUnitTestCase;
-use Config\Services;
 
 /**
  * @internal
@@ -10,7 +9,7 @@ final class ExampleSessionTest extends CIUnitTestCase
 {
     public function testSessionSimple(): void
     {
-        $session = Services::session();
+        $session = service('session');
 
         $session->set('logged_in', 123);
         $this->assertSame(123, $session->get('logged_in'));
diff --git a/tests/unit/HealthTest.php b/tests/unit/HealthTest.php
index 25f229b0..f6a5a804 100644
--- a/tests/unit/HealthTest.php
+++ b/tests/unit/HealthTest.php
@@ -2,7 +2,6 @@
 
 use CodeIgniter\Test\CIUnitTestCase;
 use Config\App;
-use Config\Services;
 use Tests\Support\Libraries\ConfigReader;
 
 /**
@@ -17,7 +16,7 @@ public function testIsDefinedAppPath(): void
 
     public function testBaseUrlHasBeenSet(): void
     {
-        $validation = Services::validation();
+        $validation = service('validation');
 
         $env = false;